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ReefLink Database

ReefLink Database User's Guide

A Decision Support Tool for Linking Coral Reefs and Society through Systems Thinking

Download User's Guide (PDF version, 11 pp, 0.7MB, About PDF)

1.0 Background

Coral reefs provide the ecological foundation for productive and diverse fish & invertebrate communities that support multibillion dollar reef fishing and tourism industries (Burke and Maidens 2004). Yet reefs are threatened by growing coastal development, climate change, and over-exploitation. Efforts by numerous federal, state, academic, and non-governmental organizations have generated a wealth of knowledge on coral reef ecology, yet reef ecosystems continue to decline (Wilkinson, 2008). A key issue is that scientific and management efforts are often narrowly defined. As a consequence, there is often difficulty in predicting the indirect consequences and benefits of decisions. There is an urgent need for a decision framework which integrates environmental concerns with social and economic needs.



2.0 Organizing Framework

The ReefLink Database utilizes a systems approach to integrate ecosystem services into the decision process, including elucidating the linkages between decisions, human activities, and provisioning of reef ecosystem goods and services. The database employs an overarching framework to ensure that critical concepts are not overlooked. The Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) scheme is a flexible framework which characterizes causal links between five broad categories (EEA 1997, UNEP 2007, Maxim et al. 2009, Ojeda-Martinez et al. 2009).

Within DPSIR, Drivers (D) are social and economic forces which lead to human activities which create Pressure (P) on the State (S) of the environment, and Impact (I) the availability and value of ecosystem services. Decision-makers may enact a Response (R) to reduce the impacts on environmental resources through regulations, policies, and other decisions, which may alter Drivers (D) or Pressures (P), or directly affect the State (S) of the ecosystem. For more information, see the Tutorial on Systems Thinking using the DPSIR Framework.

The DPSIR framework is being employed to catalog, categorize, and organize a database of information including visual conceptual models illustrating relationships between concepts, scientific information, laws, and management options. Although our focus is on Caribbean reefs, keywords, concept maps, and database information were developed to capture broad ideas with widespread applicability to other reefs.

Ecosystem Services Pressures through Human Activities Reef Ecosystem Responses Socio-Economic Drivers

2.1 Hierarchy of Topics

The topics in the ReefLink Database were derived from literature searches and assembling focus groups of experts in reef ecology, economics, and decision-making. The DPSIR framework was employed to ensure key ecological, social, and economic topics were not overlooked. The five DPSIR categories are Socio-Economic Drivers (D), Pressures (P), the state of the Reef Ecosystem (S), the impact on Ecosystem Services (I), and Responses (R).

Broad sub-categories were developed within each of the five DPSIR categories. More specific topics are contained within each sub-category, often with more detailed sub-sub-categories or examples provided for each sub-category. Database information is provided for topics across all levels of the hierarchy (categories, sub-categories, or examples).

Categories and sub-categories are intended to serve as headings to organize a suite of related information. Categories are defined to reflect their usage within this database, rather than a strict definition of the term. Examples within each sub-category are provided, but the user should be aware that these are not intended to be all inclusive.

Hierarchy

Topic

DPSIR Category

Pressures

--Sub-Category

--Discharges

----Sub-sub-category

----Atmospheric Emissions

------Example

------Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Socio-Economic Drivers were derived from the North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS), the government standard which defines a comprehensive list of sectors of the economy. NAICS categories were slightly modified to reflect broad categories of human need, as well as to emphasize certain sub-sectors that were particularly relevant to reef management, while collapsing less relevant sectors. Some sectors may fall under more than one category (recreational fishing for food & culture).

Pressures were largely derived from information on stressors, including coastal pollution and development, from the Environmental Protection Agency. Focus groups and literature searches were used to identify key stressors on reefs (Burke and Maidens 2004).

The pressures exerted by society may lead to unintentional or intentional changes in the state of the Reef Ecosystem, including the concentration and quantity of physical and chemical variables through inputs of contaminants or sediments, or climate change, as well as altering the abundance, size, and diversity of biological variables by causing mortality or altering interactions among species. topics describing the state of the Reef Ecosystem were largely derived from literature searches and focus groups.

Changes in the condition of the reef ecosystem impact the welfare or well-being of humans through the provisioning of reef Ecosystem Services. Categories of Ecosystem Services were largely derived from the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA 2005).

Humans make decisions in Response to the impacts on ecosystem services or their perceived value. Responses are actions taken by groups or individuals in society and government to prevent, compensate, ameliorate or adapt to changes in the state of the environment. Categories of Responses were derived from reviewing possible actions described by the Environmental Protection Agency, existing reef management plans for Guanica Bay, Puerto Rico and the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA 2005), as well as focus groups.



3.0 Concept Maps

Concept maps are a visual way to represent relationships between ideas. Concept Mapping is a useful tool for visualizing a shared understanding of knowledge, communicating complex ideas, and detailing a single topic within the context of a larger system (Heemskerk et al. 2003). Development of concept maps is highly subjective and the models presented here are intended to stimulate thought and provide examples. Users are encouraged to develop their own conceptual models for their specific situation.

Concept mapping diagrams illustrate the links between socio-economic sectors and the pressures they create on the reef ecosystem and consequently, the availability of reef goods and services. Decision-makers may enact responses to reduce impacts on environmental resources through regulations, policies, and other decisions.

Concept maps are read essentially as a sentence where boxes represent concepts which are linked by a phrase to form a preposition.

Concepts can be further added and linked to represent a complex system. The ReefLink Database includes two types of concept maps: a whole systems conceptual model and more detailed concept maps for each topic.

The Whole Systems Conceptual Model provides an overview of all topics and their connections.

3.1 Whole Systems Model

The Whole System Concept Map provides an overview of all topics, and connections between them, within the DPSIR framework. Connections are not intended to be all-inclusive (every possible connection between pairs of words), but are instead intended to represent general patterns.

The Whole Systems Model essentially provides a visual Table of Contents to topics contained within the database. Clicking on topics within the Whole Systems Model will direct users to expanded concept maps and database information for individual topic areas.

Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas used by primary producers, such as plants and algae, to produce sugars. Accidental by-catch is damage or harvest of non-target species, including fish or marine vertebrates, by fishing gear while collecting targeted species. Illegal harvest, or poaching, is collection of species that are protected from harvest. The Agriculture Sector includes both animal and crop production. Establishments primarily include farms, ranches, feedlots, orchards, and greenhouses (NAICS 2007). Agriculture, aquaculture and forestry policies regulate and control agriculture, aquaculture and forestry. Algae are aquatic, photosynthetic plant-like organisms and include calcareous macroalgae, fleshy macroalgae, turf algae, and crustose coralline algae. Anemones & zooanthids are cnidarians very similar to coral, but are not characteristic reef builders. Applied chemicals are chemicals applied to lands, vehicles, buildings, or during manufacturing for a variety of purposes, including maintaining pests, improving soil quality, or cleaning surfaces. Applied chemicals include fertilizers and pesticides, cleaners and solvents, and sunscreen. The Aquaculture sector is involved in the raising and production of aquatic animals and plants in controlled environments (NAICS 2007). Artificial habitat includes structures such as oil rigs, debris, sunken ships, and even abandoned bombs that can provide substrate for coral and sponges, or habitat for fish and invertebrates, potentially creating an artificial coral reef ecosystem. Atmospheric Emissions include discharges of atmospheric pollutants, including mercury, greenhouse gases, nitrogen and sulfur dioxides, and volatile organic compounds from the operation of factories, vehicles, and other sources. Sand production is the process by which calcified coral skeletons and invertebrate shells break down, forming sand which replenishes beaches. Historic reefs may provide the foundation for land formation, such as creation of islands. Biochemical & genetic resources are the naturally available novel biochemicals and genetic information found in coral reef organisms that can be utilized for animal breeding or development of biotechnology. Biocriteria are narrative expressions or numeric values that describe the biological condition (structure and function) of aquatic communities inhabiting waters of a designated aquatic life use. Biocriteria are based on the numbers and kinds of organisms present and are regulatory-based biological measurements (EPA 2009a). Biological Addition refers to anthropogenic inputs of a biological nature into the reef ecosystem, including artificial habitat, domestic animal waste, supplemental feeding, and escape or release of non-native species. Biological Harvest is the collection of living things from the ecosystem for recreation, consumption, or sale of marine products. Harvest includes commercial and recreational fishing, invertebrate harvesting, live rock collection, accidental by-catch, and illegal harvest. Biological monitoring is the use of a biological entity as a detector and its response as a measure to determine environmental conditions. Toxicity tests and ambient biological surveys are common biological monitoring methods. Biological restoration refers to responses to directly alter the condition of populations, communities, and habitat in the reef ecosystem through restoration activities, limits on degradation through biological criteria, or improving knowledge through monitoring, mapping, and scientific research. Biological monitoring, mapping, and scientific research are activities to track the condition of populations, communities, and habitat, and to understand the processes, stressors, and ecological interactions that affect that condition. Biomedical research policies, including research funding and patent laws regarding natural biochemicals, can influence the demand for biochemicals and the activities of research and development. Boating activities include movement in coastal waters and into ports that can lead to anchor drops or vessel groundings, or damage from trawling and other fishing gear. Boating Regulations are restrictions placed on boating activities to promote safety for boaters and the natural environment, and can include mooring buoys, registration and licensing, and speed limits. Building and Home Construction includes sectors that construct commercial buildings and residences, and may include new construction, additions, or alterations. Carbon storage and cycling is the ability of an ecosystem to utilize, process, and store carbon. Two methods by which reef organisms store carbon are primary production through photosynthesis, and calcium carbonate deposition. Chemical use regulations are policies to control the production, distribution, and use of potentially toxic chemicals. Examples include scientific testing to evaluate risk, registration, labeling, or recommendations on use concentration or frequency. The Chemicals in the ocean, such as the CO2, pH levels, and salinity, may vary depending on the drivers and pressures. Chemical Variables affect the growth, reproduction, and survival of coral. City planning refers to the development of guidelines, integrating landuse and transportation planning, to improve the economic, social, and structural functioning of cities. Specific guidelines may be developed for Smart Growth, including compact neighborhoods and preservation of open spaces, urban-rural demarcation lines, or Low Impact Development. Civil Engineering and Construction specializes in the design and construction of infrastructure, including buildings and homes, roads, utility lines, and ports. Cleaners and solvents are used to remove oil, grease, and other contaminants during industrial or household cleaning. Climate reflects a region's temperature, humidity, air pressure, and weather. Marine climate, in particular, encompasses sea surface temperatures and storm events, including hurricanes. Climate regulation is the process by which ecosystems process and store carbon, which can modulate atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide. Coastal Defense is the protection of the country's coastline, including the Coast Guard and federal, state, or local agencies involved in coastal law enforcement. Coastal Development is the construction of infrastructure, buildings, homes, and roads in coastal communities. It often results from increasing population growth or growth in the tourism sector. Collaboration and partnering refers to working together to achieve a goal. Collaboration and partneringcan improve the effectiveness of monitoring, research, and decisions by integrating the efforts of academic and government institutions, or by utilizing the knowledge and support of local stakeholders. Collaboration and partnering refers to working together to achieve a goal. Collaboration and partneringcan improve the effectiveness of monitoring, research, and decisions by integrating the efforts of academic and government institutions, or by utilizing the knowledge and support of local stakeholders. Complex habitat and resources reflects the complex architecture of sessile, plant-like organisms, such as octocoral and sponges, which provides shelter and protection for small fish and other invertebrates from predators. Nursery habitat, in particular, is essential for juvenile fish and invertebrates. Construction codes and regulations control the location, number, and development of construction projects, including buildings, homes, and coastal structures. Contact Uses, such as biological additions, physical damage, and biological harvesting, are activities in which humans create pressures through direct contact with the ecosystem. Coral is a colonial marine animal consisting of polyps. Species of coral include stony coral, octocoral & soft coral, black coral, and hydrocoral. Stony coral, or schleractianians, form calcium carbonate skeletons which may persist in the marine environment long after the colony has died. Corporate responses are the general reaction of private corporations and businesses to different issues, such as environmental responsibility. Corporate responses to environmental responsibility vary from no response at all, to companies publishing annual reports about their efforts to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, to incorporating environmentally responsible practices into their business model. Cultural policies are responses that impact the distribution and functioning of cultural sectors, including tourism, recreation, education, and social organization. Examples include policies to limit or increase tourism, educate the public to enhance environmental awareness, increase funding for scientific research and outreach, or improve the effectiveness of decisions through collaboration and partnering. Cultural protections are designed to preserve or protect buildings, landscapes, artifacts, or species of cultural or historic significance. Cultural services are the nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, recreational opportunities, aesthetic experiences, sense of place, and educational and research opportunities. Culture sectors contribute to the social, emotional, and intellectual well-being of the community. Sectors include social organizations, tourism, recreation, education, and information. Decision Support is a broad, generic term that encompasses all aspects related to supporting people in making decisions. Decision support disciplines include operations research, decision analysis, and decision support systems. Examples of decision support activities include developing management plans, conducting environmental assessments, utilizing decision support tools, managing data, or acquiring additional personnel. Deforestation and Devegetation are the removal of trees and plants, including clear-cutting, to provide clear land for farms, roads, homes, buildings, and other infrastructure. Designating protected species is the process of legally establishing a species as threatened, endangered, or of special concern, often requiring that critical habitat must be designated as well and recovery plans implemented. Designated uses are a state�s concise statements of its management objectives and expectations for each of the individual surface waters under its jurisdiction. Discharge limitations are responses to regulate and control the discharge of pollutants and the use of chemicals. Examples include point and non-point source controls, regulations on the use of chemicals, and technological improvements to reduce emissions. Discharges are the intentional or unintentional distribution of chemicals, debris, or other pollution, into the environment as a consequence of human activities. Discharges may be point-source or non-point source, and includes application of chemicals such as fertilizers or pesticides, atmospheric emissions, waterborne discharges, or littering. Ditching & Soil Disturbance pertains to large-scale changes to the terrestrial landscape through channeling for irrigation, grading for roads & construction, and mining which disrupt and dislodge soil and can lead to sediment runoff into the watershed. Domestic Animals Waste includes solid waste produced by animals, including pets, agricultural animals, as well as stray and feral animals. Dredging regulations are decisions or policies to control the location or intensity of physically damaging activities such as dredging, draining, or filling. Dredging is the process of excavating material from an area to maintain ship channels and harbors for safe navigation. Filling and draining may be used to prepare coastal wetlands for development, either by adding sediment brought in from another location, or implementing hydrological projects to remove water. The Drinking Water Supply subsector includes the drinking water systems that provide drinking water, including treatment and supply using aqueducts, pumping stations, distribution mains. Economic markets and policies can influence financing and insurance, as well as drive consumer demand for certain types of goods and services. Markets, such as carbon credit markets, may be established to mitigate pollutant discharge or development. The Education and Information sectors consists of schools, colleges, instruction and training programs that provide instruction in various subjects, organizations that conduct scientific research, and organizations that collect and distribute information (NAICS 2007). Educational & Research Opportunities pertain to the value derived from a natural ecosystem in regards to knowledge, scientific research, study, and breakthroughs, and the ability to pass this knowledge on to others. Energy policy & development includes policies and regulations adopted to control the production, distribution, and consumption of energy. Examples include incentives for use of alternative energy sources, regulations on mining activities, and regulations on the oil and gas industry. Environmental education refers to organized efforts to teach about how natural environments function and, particularly, how human beings can manage their behavior and ecosystems in order to live sustainably. The term is often used to imply education within the school system, from primary to post-secondary. However, it is sometimes used more broadly to include all efforts to educate the public and other audiences, including print materials, websites, media campaigns, etc. Environmental outreach is an umbrella term for a variety of activities by research institutes, universities, but also institutions such as science museums, aimed at promoting public awareness (and understanding) of environmental science and making informal contributions to environmental science education. Environmental monitoring describes the processes and activities that need to take place to characterize and monitor the quality of the physical and chemical environment. Environmental restoration refers to responses to directly alter the physical and chemical condition of the reef ecosystem through remediation activities or limits on degradation through water quality criteria. Environmental monitoring, mapping, and scientific research are activities to track the condition of the physical and chemical environment, and to understand the processes that affect it. The Escape and Release of Non-Natives pertains to the introduction of non-native and potentially invasive species into the coral reef ecosystem. Existence value is the economic value or meaning humans place in a particular area, resource or organism simply for existing, separate from any derived use value. Sense of place is the cultural identity of a community in part derived from its association, connection, and proximity to a natural ecosystem. Fertilizer & pesticide use is the application of chemicals designed to improve the nutrient quality of soil to promote plant growth, or to control weeds and pest species. Fertilizers typically contain nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium. Pesticides may include herbicides, insecticides, or fungicides and may be derived from natural or synthetic chemicals, including organophosphates, carbamates, or pyrethroids. The Finance and Insurance sector is primarily involved in financial transactions and facilitating such financial transactions. This sector includes banks, credit unions, credit card companies, stock brokerages, investment funds, and insurance companies. Finfish and shellfish stock are fish (e.g., groupers and snappers) and invertebrates (e.g., lobster, crab, conch, octopus, squid, and bivalves) that are harvested for human consumption as seafood. Fishing is the activity of catching fish for recreational, commercial, or artesanal purposes using any of a variety of fishing gear, including nets, spear guns, or hook and line. Fish are cold-blooded aquatic vertebrates that breathe through gills and usually have scales. Fisheries and hunting policies control who can fish, harvest and hunt. This can be accomplished by setting seasons or limiting the number of licenses issued. Licenses can also limit what types of groups are able to participate. For example, a commercial fishing license is likely to differ from a sport fishing license. Fishing & harvesting management controls the activities which harvest fish and invertebrates, including commercial and recreational fishing. Examples include incentives for sustainable fishing, catch limitations, gear restrictions, and establishing no take zones. The Fishing Sector includes the harvesting of fish for food and recreation. It includes retail goods & services related to recreational and artisanal fishing, as well as commercial fisheries. Food & energy policies are legislation, restrictions, and guidelines that pertain to sectors that harvest or extract natural resources. Examples including agricultural and aquacultural policies, policies that regulate and control forestry, energy management policies that regulate and control mining and the oil & gas industry, and fishing & harvesting policies that control and regulate commercial fishing. The Food and Raw Materials sector includes groups that harvest natural resources from the earth, including agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, forestry, mining, and the oil and gas industry (NAICS 2007). The Forestry sector specializes in harvesting of wood resources for fuel, wood, and paper products, and often implements practices that will sustain resources, such as reforestation. Funding is to provide resources, usually in form of money or other values such as effort or time, for a project or to private or public institutions. A donation is a gift given, typically for charitable purposes and/or to benefit a cause. Funding and donations can provide monetary support to educational institutions or non-profit organizations for scientific research and monitoring, education, or outreach.. Funding and incentives are budgetary decisions by public administration to improve the effectiveness of decisions through daily operations, research, monitoring, and outreach. Examples include requests for additional funding, budgeting, or providing incentives. Greenhouse Gas Emissions affect the earth's climate and temperature, because they trap heat in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gas emissions include chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), and water vapor The Health sector includes groups which provide for human health through medical and social care, and maintenance and disposal of waste. Sectors include medical care, social assistance, and waste management. Health care policies are actions taken to change the provisioning, cost, or need for health care services, and may include modifications to health insurance, preventative care, and establishment or management of health care facilities. Health policies are responses that impact the functioning of health sectors, including waste management facilities, biomedical research, and development and sale of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Examples include policies to regulate, install, or upgrade waste management, fund biomedical research, and influence patenting of natural biochemicals. Housing is a subsector of the Shelter Sector. It includes specialty trade construction of single family and multi-unit housing, household products, household retail, and real estate businesses (realtors, appraisers, etc). Hydrological management refers to responses designed to limit discharges by directly controlling the flow of water. Examples include implementing or upgrading stormwater collection systems, altering water collection or delivery from reservoirs, or projects to modify discharge from rivers. Impervious surfaces are surfaces, such as asphalt roads and concrete sidewalks. Impervious surfaces prevent rain from soaking into the ground, thus increasing flows during storms and reducing stream flows during dry periods. This leads to runoff that brings sediment, nutrients, and contaminants into bodies of water. Improved technology refers to innovations in the production or distribution activities of factories, transportation, utilities, and other sectors that can lead to healthier, environmentally and economically improved practices that can save energy, resources, and money over time. Infrastructural management are responses, including policies or regulations, that impact the distribution and functioning of socio-economic sectors that provide infrastructure. Examples include policies to manage transportation, regulations on manufacturing and trade, construction codes and regulations, construction projects, economic policies and market pressures, and responses by individual corporations. Infrastructural sectors provide the physical, organizational, and technical support for the economy to function, including construction, utilities, transportation, finance, manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, and technical services. Invasive species are plants, animals, or other organisms that are foreign to a particular environment, and whose introduction may be detrimental when invasives compete with or consume native species. Invasive species in Caribbean reefs include lionfish, batfish, and tubastraea coral. Invertebrate Harvesting is the act of collecting marine invertebrates, including sponges, lobsters, and other invertebrates, for seafood or other marine products. An Invertebrate is any animal that lacks a backbone. Marine Invertebrates that are commonly found in coral reef ecosystems include clams, crabs, lobsters, conchs, squid, starfish, octopi, snails, worms, and sea urchins. Irrigation is needed for Agriculture, and involves the treatment and supply of water for irrigation purposes using aqueducts, pumping stations, and distribution mains. Landscape Changes are alterations of the natural landscape through human activities, including coastal development, shoreline armoring, impervious surfaces, deforestation, or soil disturbance, which can alter water flow patterns and lead to pollutant runoff into coastal systems. Landscape conservation and restoration refers to efforts to protect and restore disturbed natural landscapes, such as through hydroseeding or beach renourishment. Household and Landscaping Services are subsectors that provide for the maintenance of homes, buildings, and urban landscapes. This subsector includes landscaping, lawn care, maintenance services, gardening, and cleaning services. Landuse management pertains to responses that determine the use of land for development and construction. Examples city planning, landuse zoning, building permitting, as well as efforts to restore natural landscapes, such as hydroseeding or beach renourishment. Light is the level of visible and ultraviolet solar radiation that penetrates the water column. Littering is a type of pollution that occurs when garbage, including plastics, paper, and metal, are not disposed of properly and can enter coastal waters. Live collection is the collection of colorful or unique species from marine environments, particularly for the marine ornamental industry (e.g., aquariums). Industries in the Manufacturing and Trade subsector produce and sell food, beverage, tobacco, wood, plastics, chemical products, metals, electronics, and machinery products, in both wholesale and retail trade. Manufacturing and trade regulations are laws and policies enacted to control production, distribution, and sale of goods and services. Regulations may tax, limit, or prohibit trade of certain types of goods to protect resources, protect consumers, or influence competition among businesses. Manufacturing regulations seek to control production of goods to ensure environmental compliance, protect consumers, and promote workplace safety. Marine debris includes garbage, plastics, glass, and metal, which are not disposed of properly and can enter coastal waters. Marine products are non-food goods derived from reefs that promote human well-being (e.g, aquarium fish or ornamental resources) and human health (e.g., pharmaceuticals and cosmetics). Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are Any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, tribal, territorial, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein (EO 2000). Marine vertebrates are aquatic animals with a backbone, such as sea turtles, whales, dolphins and marine birds. The Medical Care subsector of the Health sector includes the manufacturing of medical equipment, the operation of medical centers, biomedical research, and the production and sale of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Microorganisms are microscopic plants or animals, such as cyanobacteria and disease-causing pathogens that live in coral reef ecosystems. The Military is authorized by the government to use force in order to defend its country, and includes the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps, as well as organizations involved in the manufacturing and supply of military equipment. The Mining Industry consists of the operation of mines, quarries, and wells, and the extraction of natural resources, such as solid and liquid minerals and gases, from the earth (NAICS 2007). This sector includes coal, mineral and metal mining. Mining policies are specific to where, when, what and how non-living natural resources can be extracted. These policies ensure the safety of workers during the removal process, as well as ensuring the safety of the communities and the natural environment in the surrounding area. In the US, many of these policies come from the department of the interior. However, externalities from mining may fall under the auspices of other departments, such as the environmental Protection agency, under the Clean Water Act when materials removed during mining pollute local waters. Mitigation is an effort to lessen or alleviate a burden on persons or the environment caused by some action or offense. When the offense is caused to the environment, compensatory mitigation may be required, where projects or programs must take place to offset or correct the offense. The extent to which these are affective is often questioned, as it is difficult to equate the environmental benefits of the offset to the original environmental benefits. Even when the original environment is restored, it may take centuries to regain its productivity. Monetary valuation involves methods to quantify the worth of ecosystem goods and services in terms of economic units (e.g. US dollars). Methods include market values for market-traded goods, or non-market values for non-traded benefits using revealed or state preferences, or cost-avoidance techniques (Hajkowicz 2007). Non-Greenhouse Gas Emissions include emissions of non-methane hydrocarbon, nitrogen oxide, particulates, sulphur oxide, and volatile organic compounds. These emissions pollute the air, which has a negative effect on human health and the health of animals. Non-monetary valuation methods are used to quantify ecosystem goods and services in terms of units other than economic ones, such as stakeholder preferences or quality of life. Formal methods for decision analysis, such as multi-attribute utility theory, have been developed (Hajkowicz 2007). Non-point source controls are designed to monitor, regulate, and limit pollution from non-point sources, such as urban runoff, agricultural runoff, domestic animals, road construction, timber harvests, boats, and septic systems. Examples include setting and monitoring total maximum daily loads (TMDLs) from non-point source discharges. Non-point source pollution is runoff from diffuse sources that is caused by rainwater moving over and through the ground, carrying pollutants with it and depositing them in coastal waters. Nutrient and contaminant processing refers to an ecosystem's ability to process and cycle contaminants and nutrients through its system. Nutrients are essential elements needed by plants and animals for growth and primarily include nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium, as well as minor nutrients such as calcium, magnesium, or zinc. Ocean acidity reflects the pH of the ocean's surface, and is determined by dissolution rates of atmospheric CO2 and sea surface temperatures. The Oil and Gas Industry specializes in the finding of natural resources such as crude petroleum and natural gas, and the creation, maintenance, and operation of wells to extract the oil and gas from the earth and prepare it for sale (NAICS 2007). Permitting is documentation required for new construction and remodeling/renovation, in compliance with national, regional, and local zoning and building codes. Zoning can be used to establish the distribution of land uses, from high intensity development to public parks. The Reef Ecosystem includes a suite of abiotic variables that form the physical and chemical environment. Chemical variables include nutrients, toxic chemicals, and changes in ocean acidity. Physical variables include both freshwater and seawater flow, sediment, light, and benthic substrate, as well as a number of variables related to climate, including sea surface temperature and tropical storms. Physical and chemical water quality criteria, monitored and enforced by the EPA under the Clean Water Act, define the maximum and recommended amounts of chemicals and other contaminants that should be found in waterbodies. Physical Damage to reef habitat and wetlands can occur from vessel groundings, dredging, trampling, boat movement, anchor drops, trawling, and fishing gear. The Physical aspects of coral reef ecosystems, such as the depth, temperature, and light, vary depending on the drivers and pressures. Physical Variables affect the growth, reproduction, and survival of coral. Plankton are any plants or animals that are too small to actively move against ocean currents. Point & Mobile Source Controls are designated to monitor and limit water discharge pollution from point sources, such as factories, and mobile sources, such as boats. Waterborne point source discharges are pollution from a discernible, confined conveyance, such as a pipe, vehicle, ship, or animal feeding operation that directly enter the aquatic environment into streams or direct discharge into coastal waters. Point source discharges may include wastewater discharges, petroleum spills, and ballast discharges. Political pressure is public demand for government action on certain management or policy concerns. For example, pressure may come from higher levels of government, voting, feedback from public review periods, lawsuits, or protests. Provisioning services are the products or ecosystem goods obtained from ecosystems, including seafood, genetic and biochemical resources, pharmaceuticals, ornamental resources, and water resources. Public Administration includes government institutions that administer, oversee, and manage governmental programs. It includes the administration of economic programs, environmental quality, housing and urban development, public health, human resources, justice and public order, and space research and technology. Aesthetic & recreational value pertains to the value derived from the visual beauty and recreational opportunities provided by a natural ecosystem, including an assemblage of diverse, healthy, colorful, or unique species. Reef Habitat is the abundance, distribution, and condition of the benthic components of the reef ecosystem. Stony coral, algae, sponges, and other species provide habitat and resources for reef inhabitants, including fish and invertebrates. Reef Inhabitants are all of the motile components of the reef ecosystem, including fish, invertebrates, marine reptiles and mammals, and are quantified by their abundance, distribution, and condition. Reef Life is the abundance, distribution, and condition of the biological components of the coral reef ecosystem. Stony coral, octocoral, algae, sponges and other species provide habitat for fish, invertebrates, and other inhabitants. Nearby wetlands are also an important component of the reef ecosystem, providing nursery habitat and refugia for many reef fish. Reef inhabitants, including fish & invertebrates, graze & maintain reef habitat, preventing overgrowth of algae. Microorganisms and invasive species can affect other reef species. Regulating Services are benefits obtained from ecosystem processes that regulate the environment, including erosion regulation, natural hazard regulation, and climate regulation. Remediation is the removal of pollution or contaminants from soil, groundwater, sediment, or surface water for the protection of human health and the environment. Resource use management pertains to responses to regulate or limit contact activities that may directly impact coastal species through harvesting or physical damage. Examples include regulating boating or fishing activities, controls on dredging activities, establishment of protected areas, designating areas for specific uses, or permitting for special uses such as scientific collection. Salinity is the dissolved salt concentration in water, and is the key factor distinguishing ocean water from freshwater. Marine species typically tolerate a range of salinity from 33-37 parts per thousand. Sea temperature is a measure of the warmth of ocean waters, and depends on water depth, solar radiation, water circulation patterns, and atmospheric temperatures. Seawater flow reflects circulation patterns, currents, and wave action that move water throughout the ocean and towards the coastline. The Security Sector provides security to the country and its people effectively and under democratic principles. This sector includes the security and justice apparatus and the relevant civilian bodies responsible for its management. Security and public administration policies are responses to improve the decision-making and enforcement abilities of governmental institutions. Examples include collaborations and partnering with academic scientists or local stakeholders, developing management plans, conducting environmental assessments, using decision support tools, political pressure, and law enforcement. Security policies include all actions that ensure the public is safe and secure. These include policies concerning natural disasters (hurricane evacuation), public safety (law enforcement), and international disputes (military defense). Sediment includes dirt, sand, silt, clay, and small rocks that form soil on land or soft substrate in marine habitats, and may be transported by water, wind, or human activities. Shelter includes sectors that provide for the comfort and protection of humans in relation to their living spaces. Subsectors include housing, textiles and apparel, household and landscaping services, and building and home construction. Shoreline armoring is the construction of bulkheads, seawalls, riprap or any other structure used to harden a shoreline against erosion. Shoreline Protection is the attenuation of wave energy by reefs that protects coastal communities against shoreline erosion and flooding during storms, hurricanes, and tsunamis that can cause property damage and loss of life. The Social Assistance subsector of the Health sector provides social assistance directly to clients at social assistance centers. This subsector includes services for youth, the elderly, the disabled, communities, and emergencies. Social Organizations are devoted to improving social well-being, and include churches, grant making organizations, and charities. Socio-Economic Drivers include the sectors that fulfill human needs for Food & Raw Materials, Water, Shelter, Health, Culture, and Security, and the Infrastructure that supports the sectors. Socio-Economic Drivers were derived from the North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS), the standard used by Federal statistical agencies in classifying business establishments for the purpose of collecting, analyzing, and publishing statistical data related to the U.S. business economy. Special use permitting is a documentation mechanism to allow activities that might otherwise be prohibited (e.g,, collection of species for scientific research in a protected area). Sponges are sessile colonial animals with soft porous bodies supported by a fibrous skeletal framework. Storms and hurricanes are periodic events of high precipitation, winds, wave action, and flooding that can potentially cause damage to reef habitat, property, or human lives. Substrate is the surface upon which an organism grows or is attached, and may include sand, hardbottom, rock, or even other biota. Sunscreen is a lotion, spray, gel or other topical product that absorbs or reflects some of the sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation on the skin exposed to sunlight and thus helps protect against sunburn.. Sunscreen ingredients include Benzophenones (dixoybenzone, oxybenzone); PABA and PABA esters (ethyl dihydroxy propyl PAB, glyceryl PABA, p-aminobenzoic acid, padimate-O or octyl dimethyl PABA); Cinnamates (cinoxate, ethylhexyl p-methoxycinnamate, octocrylene, octyl methoxycinnamate); Salicylates (ethylhexyl salicylate, homosalate, octyl salicylate); Digalloyl trioleate; Menthyl anthranilate; or Avobenzone [butyl-methyoxydibenzoylmethane; Parsol 1789] Supplemental feeding occurs when humans supply wild animals (e.g., fish, dolphins, etc.) with food, such as bread crumbs, to attract them and alter their behavior. Supporting services are ecological processes that indirectly benefit humans by maintaining a functional ecosystem for the production of other ecosystem goods and services. Supporting services include carbon storage and cycling, nutrient and contaminant processing, and provision of complex habitat and resources. Surface and groundwater flow reflects the patterns of water movement across the landscape, including rivers, streams, underground water, or stormwater. Textiles and Apparel is a subsector of the Shelter Sector. Industries in this subsector manufacture yarn or fabric into clothing or practical items such as sheets and towels. This sector also includes the manufacture and trade of jewelry. Tourism & Recreation sectors operate facilities and provide services for the varied cultural, entertainment, and recreational interests of residents and tourists. This sector consists of producing and promoting exhibits and events intended for the public and the operation of facilities for recreational activities, including the aquarium and pet trade, entertainment services, and accommodations. Tourism and recreation policies can be use to control the distribution and intensity of recreational activities such as through advertising, incentives, or visitors centers. Toxics are chemical pollutants that are poisonous, carcinogenic, or otherwise directly harmful to humans, plants, or animals. Toxic chemicals include volatile organic compounds (VOCs), metals such as lead or mercury, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and hydrocarbons. Trampling occurs when humans walk on, kick, bump into, or touch corals. The Transportation Sector involves comprises all modes of transportation (Aviation, Maritime, Mass Transit, Highway, Freight Rail, and Pipeline) The Transportation Systems Sector is segmented into six key subsectors, or modes, which operate independently within both a regulated and non-regulated environment, yet are also highly interdependent. Such interdependence is a defining characteristic of the transportation system. The six modes - Aviation, Maritime, Mass Transit, Highway, Freight Rail, and Pipeline - all contribute to transporting people, food, water, medicines, fuel, and other commodities. The combined efforts of the modes play an important role in maintaining the public health, safety, and economic well-being of our Nation. Yet, each does so with unique characteristics, operating models, responsibilities, and stakeholders. Transportation management includes policies, regulations, and zoning designed to control the distribution and intensity of transportation networks, including roads and shipping channels, and vehicles, including cars, boats, and ships. Tunicates, or Utilities specialize in providing basic services for public use, including telecommunications, water systems, natural gas, electric power, and waste management. Utility policies are those that put controls on delivery of utilities to human populations. This includes but is not limited to chemical requirements for safe drinking water, and policies that increase energy efficiency during production and transmission. Valuation is the process of estimating the worth, merit, or desirability of benefits derived from ecosystems. Market value is usually in monetary terms, and reflects prices from the organized exchange of goods and services, such as marine products, between buyers and sellers. Non-market value reflect derived benefits, such as shoreline protection, which are not traded in conventional markets. Water Sectors include those that pertain to provisioning of water for public use, including the drinking water supply, irrigation systems for agriculture, and water for critical services (such as firefighting and hospitals). Water depth reflects the height between the bottom of the seafloor and water surface, and is often indicative of distinct ecological communities (shallow water species; deep water species). Sea level reflects the average height of the ocean surface, and determines water level and inundation patterns along coastlines. Water resources reflect the quality and quantity of seawater available for human use, including swimming, navigation, and other uses. Waterborne discharges include direct and indirect discharges of pollutants into the aquatic environment, including chemicals, nutrients, sediment, and pathogens. Discharges may be directly released into marine waters, or may be carried by surface water streams, groundwater, or coastal runoff. Wetland and reef restoration are activities to directly improve, reestablish, or repair degraded ecosystems. Examples include maintaining nurseries, replenishing native populations or establishing new populations, repairing damaged individuals, restoring wetland hydrology, or removing undesirable species. A wetland is an area of land whose soil is saturated with moisture either permanently or seasonally. Such areas may also be covered partially or completely by shallow pools of water A coastal wetland is an area that has wet and spongy soils, and is located in the

3.2 Concept Maps by Topic

From the Whole Systems Model, individual concept maps (Cmaps) are expanded and elaborated for given topic areas into individual, more detailed concept maps. Each individual concept map provides examples within the focal topic, and elaborates on the Socio-Economic Drivers, Pressures, Reef Ecosystem state, Ecosystem Services, and Responses associated with that particular focal topic.

Individual Cmaps also provide information on the definition of the topic. Categories and sub-categories are intended to serve as headings to organize a suite of related information. Definitions reflect this usage as a category, sub-category, or example, rather than a strict definition of the term.

A verbal description of each Cmap is also provided, to aid users in interpreting the visual diagram. Concept map diagrams were drawn to capture major ideas, while maintaining some degree of simplicity, and may not represent an all-inclusive visualization of all possible interactions between concepts.

Each Cmap also provides links to database information, including laws, management options, websites, and scientific information associated with a given topic area.

Applied Chemicals Atmospheric Emissions Biological Addition Biological Harvest Coastal Development Contact Uses Cultural Services Deforestation & Devegetation Discharge Limitations Discharges Ditching & Soil Disturbance Ecosystem Services Impervious Surfaces Landscape Changes Landuse Management Littering Physical & Chemical Environment Physical Damage Pressures Provisioning Services Reef Ecosystem Reef Life Regulating Services Resource Use Management Responses Shoreline Armoring Socio-Economic Drivers Supporting Services Waterborne Discharges

3.3 Navigation between Concept Maps

Individual Concept Maps elaborate on the Socio-Economic Drivers, Pressures, Reef Ecosystem state, Ecosystem Services, and Responses associated with the particular focal topic. Keywords are organized within a hierarchical classification system.

Users can quickly navigate between topics by clicking on each concept within a concept map, to provide additional or more detailed elaborations on connected concepts. For example, from within the Pressures concept map, click the boxes labeled Discharges, Reef Life, or Supporting Services to obtain more information on discharges that affect the reef, reef biota, or services provided by the reef.



4.0 Information Database

The ReefLink Database is an organizing framework for compiling information that may enhance the decision process, including laws, management options, websites, and scientific literature. Database information is organized by DPSIR keyword topics.

Because topics are organized within a hierarchy, users may access specific information or more general information by navigating through the keyword hierarchy.

Database information may be three ways:

  • Whole Systems Model: provides a visual table of contents for the topic areas in the database and how they are connected. Select topic keywords to navigate to more detailed database information on individual Topic pages.
  • Topic List and Glossary: provides a list of topic areas in the database, and the definitions used to build the database. Topics may be sorted hierarchically by DPSIR category, or alphabetically. Select any topic to navigate to more detailed database information.
  • Information by Topic: provides the database information for each topic keyword. Click the tabbed pages to see more information including i) topic-specific cmaps, ii) scientific literature citations, iii) management options, and iv) laws. Select concepts within the cmap to explore connected topics or see more detailed examples.

4.1 Scientific Literature Citations

The Citations database gives scientific literature associated with each Topic keyword. Scientific literature was compiled using keyword searches in scientific literature databases and reviewed to assign DPSIR topic keywords to each article. Because of the immense number of records (>20000), we used a computer algorithm to assign topic keywords. Each topic keyword was assigned a list of synonyms, which could include examples, more detailed sub-categories within a category, or alternative spellings. The algorithm search through the abstract, title, and keywords of each citation looking for the synonyms, and if the synonym was found, assigned the topic keyword to that article.

  • Sorting: Click the arrows in each column heading to sort the records. Citations can be sorted by author name, study location, or the type of study.
  • Filtering: Records can be searched or filtered by any search term. The filter searches the article title, study location, study type, and database topic keywords.
  • Navigating Pages: Records are separated into pages. Click Next page to navigate between pages.

4.2 Management Options

Management Options is a database of potential actions managers could enact, or encourage to be enacted, in order to protect reef ecosystems and the provisioning of ecosystem services. Management options were largely derived from best management practices and existing reef management plans. However, management options were entered in the database with non-specific wording so as to have broad applicability. Management Options were assigned DPSIR keywords so that decision options related to a particular socio-economic sector, pressure, or environmental concern could be targeted.

  • Sorting: Click the arrows in each column heading to sort the records. Management options can be sorted alphabetically or by their source.
  • Filtering: Records can be searched or filtered by any search term. The filter searches management option, description, source, and database topic keywords.
  • Navigating Pages: Records are separated into pages. Click Next page to navigate between pages.

4.3 Laws

Laws are rules, policies, or regulations written and passed by a legislative body at an international, federal, state, or local jurisdication. Laws that may be applicable to protecting reef ecosystems were reviewed using literature and internet searches. Laws were specifically targeted for the United States of America, Florida, Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico. Laws were assigned DPSIR topic keywords so that laws related to a particular socio-economic sector, pressure, or environmental concern could be targeted.

  • Sorting: Click the arrows in each column heading to sort the records. Laws can be sorted by their legal citation, management organization, or jurisdiction.
  • Filtering: Records can be searched or filtered by any search term. The filter searches the legal citation, purpose of the law, application to reefs, legislative actions, management organization, jurisdiction, and database topic keywords.
  • Navigating Pages: Records are separated into pages. Click Next page to navigate between pages.



5.0 How can I use the ReefLink Database?

5.1 Public

  • Learn how factors in your community may affect coral reefs
    • Example: How might different socio-economic sectors affect the reef?
      Click on different Socio-economic drivers to learn more about each.
      Click on different Pressures to learn more about how human activities may affect reefs.
    • Example: How might agriculture on land affect the reef?
      Identify which Pressures might be derived from Agriculture.
    • Example: What socio-economic factors may be contributing to physical damage of the reef?
      Click on Socio-economic drivers which may cause Physical Damage to learn more about each.

  • Learn about beneficial goods and services the reef provides
    • Example: What are ecosystem goods and services?
      Click on different examples of Ecosystem Services to learn more about each.
    • Example: How can we put a value on reefs?
      Click on Valuation alternatives to learn about different methods.
    • Example: What socio-economic sectors may benefit from natural products provided by the reef?
      See different Marine products and learn which socio-economic drivers they may benefit.

  • Learn how decisions may affect the reef and your community
    • Example: How might coastal development policies affect the reef?
      Click on alternative Land management options to see what Pressures they may help control.
    • Example: What are different options to manage fishing activities?
      Read through the table to see different Management options and resources where they have been described.

5.2 Scientists

  • Learn how your research fits into the bigger system
    • Example: What is the role of sponges in the system?
      Learn about interactions between Sponges and other organisms in the reef ecosystem, ecosystem services sponges provide, and pressures which may affect sponges.
    • Example: What are the connections between wetlands and the reef?
      Identify supporting services that Wetlands provide.
    • Example: How might excess nutrients affect the reef?
      Identify the role of Nutrients in the reef ecosystem and organisms which may contribute to processing excess nutrients.

  • Identify decision scenarios for which your research may be relevant
    • Example: What might be causing high sediment levels and what options are available to reduce levels?
      Identify Socio-economic drivers which may contribute to Sediment discharge and potential Responses to reduce sediment.
    • Example: Can water quality criteria be used to limit contaminants?
      Read about Water quality criteria.

  • Find scientific literature relevant to your research
    • Example: What research has been done linking elevated sea temperatures on sponges?
      Go to the Sea temperatures citations table and type "sponge" in Search box.
    • Example: How many studies have attempted to place a monetary value on coral reefs?
      Scroll to bottom of Monetary valuation table and see number of entries.

  • Learn how systems thinking might be applied to research
    • Example: How can a conceptual framework like DPSIR aid in systems thinking?
      Read the Tutorial on systems thinking
    • Example: What keywords might go into a conceptual framework?
      See the list of DPSIR Keywords for coral reefs.
    • Example: Can I see an example using systems thinking organize information on coral reefs?

5.3 Managers

  • Learn how systems thinking can aid in decision-making
    • Example: How can a systems framework help to anticipate unintended consequences?
      Read the Tutorial on systems thinking
    • Example: Can I see an example of a conceptual systems model for coral reefs?
      Examine the complexity of relationships between humans and Coral reefs.

  • Learn about alternative management options
    • Example: What might be causing high nutrient levels and what options are available to reduce levels?
      Identify Socio-economic drivers which may contribute to Nutrient loading and potential Responses to reduce nutrients.
    • Example: What are different options to manage fishing activities?
      Read through the table to see different Management options and resources where they have been described.

  • Learn which stakeholders which may be positively or negatively impacted by decisions
    • Example: What socio-economic sectors may be affected if discharge limitations are implemented?
      Click on different types of Discharges to see which industries may be creating them.
    • Example: What socio-economic sectors benefit from goods & services reefs provide?
      Click on different types of Ecosystem services to see which socio-economic sectors may benefit from them.



6.0 References

  • Burke, L. and J. Maidens 2004. Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean. Washington D.C.: World Resources Institute.
  • EEA (European Environment Agency). 1999. State and pressures of the marine and coastal Mediterranean environment. Environmental assessment series. Copenhagen, Denmark: European Environment Agency.
  • Heemskerk, M., K. Wilson, and M. Pavao-Zuckerman. 2003. Conceptual models as tools for communication across disciplines. Conservation Ecology 7: 8
  • Maxim, L; Spangenberg, JH; O'Connor, M. 2009. An analysis of risks for biodiversity under the DPSIR framework. Ecological Economics 69:12-23
  • Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current State and Trends, Volume 1. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
  • Ojeda-Martinez, C; Casalduero, FG; Bayle-Sempere, JT; Cebrian, CB; Valle, C; Sanchez-Lizaso, JL; Forcada, A; Sanchez-Jerez, P; Martin-Sosa, P; Falcon, JM; Salas, F; Graziano, M; Chemello, R; Stobart, B; Cartagena, P; Perez-Ruzafa, A; Vandeperre, F; Rochel, E; Planes, S; Brito, A. 2009. A conceptual framework for the integral management of marine protected areas. Ocean & Coastal Management 52:89-101
  • UNEP 2007. Global Environment Outlook. GEO4, Nairobi & Valletta, 540 p.

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