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Fishing & Harvesting Management

Fishing & Harvesting Management

Fishing & harvesting management controls the activities which harvest fish and invertebrates, including commercial and recreational fishing. Examples include incentives for sustainable fishing, catch limitations, gear restrictions, and establishing no take zones.

CMap

Biological Addition refers to anthropogenic inputs of a biological nature into the reef ecosystem, including artificial habitat, domestic animal waste, supplemental feeding, and escape or release of non-native species. Biological Harvest is the collection of living things from the ecosystem for recreation, consumption, or sale of marine products. Boating activities include movement in coastal waters and into ports that can lead to anchor drops or vessel groundings, or damage from trawling and other fishing gear. Boating Regulations are restrictions placed on boating activities to promote safety for boaters and the natural environment, and can include mooring buoys, registration and licensing, and speed limits. Civil Engineering and Construction specializes in the design and construction of infrastructure, including buildings and homes, roads, utility lines, and ports. Contact Uses, such as biological additions, physical damage, and biological harvesting, are activities in which humans create pressures through direct contact with the ecosystem. Cultural services are the nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, recreational opportunities, aesthetic experiences, sense of place, and educational and research opportunities. Culture sectors contribute to the social, emotional, and intellectual well-being of the community. Designated uses are a state's concise statements of its management objectives and expectations for each of the individual surface waters under its jurisdiction. Dredging regulations are decisions or policies to control the location or intensity of physically damaging activities such as dredging, draining, or filling. Dredging is the process of excavating material from an area to maintain ship channels and harbors for safe navigation. Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems . Fishing is the activity of catching fish for recreational, commercial, or artesanal purposes using any of a variety of fishing gear, including nets, spear guns, or hook and line. Fish are cold-blooded aquatic vertebrates that breathe through gills and usually have scales. Fishing & harvesting management controls the activities which harvest fish and invertebrates, including commercial and recreational fishing. The Fishing Sector includes the harvesting of fish for food and recreation. The Food and Raw Materials sector includes groups that harvest natural resources from the earth, including agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, forestry, mining, and the oil and gas industry. An Invertebrate is any animal that lacks a backbone. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are Any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, tribal, territorial, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein. The Reef Ecosystem includes a suite of abiotic variables that form the physical and chemical environment. Physical Damage to reef habitat and wetlands can occur from vessel groundings, dredging, trampling, boat movement, anchor drops, trawling, and fishing gear. Provisioning services are the products or ecosystem goods obtained from ecosystems, including seafood, genetic and biochemical resources, pharmaceuticals, ornamental resources, and water resources. The state of the Reef Ecosystem is the condition, in terms of quantity and quality, of the abiotic and biotic components including physical, chemical, and biological variables. Reef Habitat is the abundance, distribution, and condition of the benthic components of the reef ecosystem. Reef Inhabitants are all of the motile components of the reef ecosystem, including fish, invertebrates, marine reptiles and mammals, and are quantified by their abundance, distribution, and condition. Reef Life is the abundance, distribution, and condition of the biological components of the coral reef ecosystem. Regulating Services are benefits obtained from ecosystem processes that regulate the environment, including erosion regulation, natural hazard regulation, and climate regulation. Resource use management pertains to responses to regulate or limit contact activities that may directly impact coastal species through harvesting or physical damage. Responses are actions taken by groups or individuals in society and government to prevent, compensate, ameliorate or adapt to changes in Ecosystem Services or their perceived value. Socio-Economic Drivers include the sectors that fulfill human needs for Food & Raw Materials, Water, Shelter, Health, Culture, and Security, and the Infrastructure that supports the sectors. Special use permitting is a documentation mechanism to allow activities that might otherwise be prohibited (e.g,, collection of species for scientific research in a protected area). Supporting services are ecological processes that indirectly benefit humans by maintaining a functional ecosystem for the production of other ecosystem goods and services. Tourism & Recreation sectors operate facilities and provide services for the varied cultural, entertainment, and recreational interests of residents and tourists. Trampling occurs when humans walk on, kick, bump into, or touch corals. The Transportation Sector involves comprises all modes of transportation (Aviation, Maritime, Mass Transit, Highway, Freight Rail, and Pipeline) The Transportation Systems Sector is segmented into six key subsectors, or modes, which operate independently within both a regulated and non-regulated environment, yet are also highly interdependent. A wetland is an area of land whose soil is saturated with moisture either permanently or seasonally.

CMap Description

A change in the provision of ecosystem services, or a desire to improve provision of ecosystem goods such as seafood, may elicit responses to manage the distribution and functioning of food and energy sectors which create pressures on the reef environment. Fishing and harvesting policies, such as incentives for sustainable fishing, catch limitations, or licensing, can control the activities of commercial and recreational fishing. Food & energy sectors benefit from reef ecosystem goods and services, in particular provisioning of finfish and shellfish.

Citations

Citation Year Study Location Study Type Database Topics
2011. Coastal Capital: Jamaica - The Economic Contribution of Jamaica�s Coral Reefs. World Resource Institute, Washington, D.C. (USA). 2011 Global; Jamaica Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Beaches & Nature Parks; Climate; Coastal Development; Cultural Policies; Cultural Protections; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Hotel & Food Services; Monetary Valuation; Ocean Acidity; Sediment; Shoreline Protection; Storms & Hurricanes; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Valuation
Bellchambers, LM; Meeuwig, JJ; Evans, SN; Legendre, P. 2011. Modelling habitat associations of 14 species of holothurians from an unfished coral atoll: implications for fisheries management. Aquatic Biology 14:57-66. 2011 Model Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Commercial Fisheries; Echinoderms; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Octocoral
Blackwood, JC; Hastings, A; Mumby, PJ. 2011. A model-based approach to determine the long-term effects of multiple interacting stressors on coral reefs. Ecological Applications 21:2722-2733. 2011 South & Central America; Caribbean Model Algae; Complex Habitat & Resources; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Ocean Acidity; Sea Temperatures; Special Use Permitting; Storms & Hurricanes; Water Depth & Sea Level; Wetland & Reef Restoration
Bradman, H; Grewe, P; Appleton, B. 2011. Direct comparison of mitochondrial markers for the analysis of swordfish population structure. Fisheries Research 109:95-99. 2011 US Pacific & Hawaii; Indian Ocean; Seychelles; India; Pacific Ocean Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Chan, WH; Mak, YL; Wu, JJ; Jin, L; Sit, WH; Lam, JCW; de Mitcheson, YS; Chan, LL; Lam, PKS; Murphy, MB. 2011. Spatial distribution of ciguateric fish in the Republic of Kiribati. Chemosphere 84:117-123. 2011 Global; US Pacific & Hawaii; Pacific Ocean; Kiribati Apex Fish Predators; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish
Evans, LS; Brown, K; Allison, EH. 2011. Factors Influencing Adaptive Marine Governance in a Developing Country Context: a Case Study of Southern Kenya. Ecology and Society 16. 2011 Kenya; Oman Collaboration & Partnering; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Fablet, R; Pecquerie, L; de Pontual, H; Hoie, H; Millner, R; Mosegaard, H; Kooijman, SALM. 2011. Shedding Light on Fish Otolith Biomineralization Using a Bioenergetic Approach. PLoS One 6. 2011 Field Study & Monitoring; Model; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Bivalves; Climate; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Ocean Acidity
Feary, DA; Cinner, JE; Graham, NAJ; Januchowski-Hartley, FA. 2011. Effects of Customary Marine Closures on Fish Behavior, Spear-Fishing Success, and Underwater Visual Surveys. Conservation Biology 25:341-349. 2011 Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Frisch, AJ; Hobbs, JPA. 2011. Effects of autotomy on long-term survival and growth of painted spiny lobster (Panulirus versicolor) on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Marine Biology 158:1645-1652. 2011 Florida; Australia Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp
Fulton, EA. 2011. Interesting times: winners, losers, and system shifts under climate change around Australia. ICES Journal of Marine Science 68:1329-1342. 2011 Global; US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia Model Climate; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Ocean Acidity
Graham, N. A. J., P. Chabanet, R. D. Evans, S. Jennings, Y. Letourneur, M. A. MacNeil, T. R. McClanahan, M. C. O� hman, N. V. C. Polunin, and S. K. Wilson. 2011. Extinction vulnerability of coral reef fishes. Ecology Letters 1-8. 2011 Global Climate; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Karnauskas, M; McClellan, DB; Wiener, JW; Miller, MW; Babcock, EA. 2011. Inferring trends in a small-scale, data-limited tropical fishery based on fishery-independent data. Fisheries Research 111:40-52. 2011 South & Central America; Haiti; Caribbean Index or Indicator; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Kellner, JB; Sanchirico, JN; Hastings, A; Mumby, PJ. 2011. Optimizing for multiple species and multiple values: tradeoffs inherent in ecosystem-based fisheries management. Conservation Letters 4:21-30. 2011 South & Central America; Caribbean Model Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Melbourne-Thomas, J; Johnson, CR; Alino, PM; Geronimo, RC; Villanoy, CL; Gurney, GG. 2011. A multi-scale biophysical model to inform regional management of coral reefs in the western Philippines and South China Sea. Environmental Modelling & Software 26:66-82. 2011 China; Philippines Model; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Climate; Decision Support; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Mitigation; Nutrients; Sea Urchins
Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2011. National Handbook of Conservation Practices. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2011 Field Study & Monitoring Agriculture; Aquaculture; Bivalves; Discharges; Fish; Irrigation; Landscape Conservation & Restoration; Non-point Source Runoff; Nutrients; Pipelines; Salinity; Sediment; Shoreline Protection; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Tourism & Recreation; Transportation Policies; Waste Management; Wetland & Reef Restoration; Wetlands
Rooper, CN; Wilkins, ME; Rose, CS; Coon, C. 2011. Modeling the impacts of bottom trawling and the subsequent recovery rates of sponges and corals in the Aleutian Islands, Alaska. Continental Shelf Research 31:1827-1834. 2011 Model Commercial Fisheries; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Sponges; Substrate; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Simon, T; Pinheiro, HT; Joyeux, JC. 2011. Target fishes on artificial reefs: Evidences of impacts over nearby natural environments. Science of the Total Environment 409:4579-4584. 2011 Artificial Habitat; Commercial Fisheries; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Nutrients; Piscivorous Fish; Recreational Fishing; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation
Sinclair, W; Newman, SJ; Vianna, GMS; Williams, S; Aspden, WJ. 2011. Spatial Subdivision and Genetic Diversity in Populations on the East and West Coasts of Australia: The Multi-Faceted Case of Nautilus pompilius (Mollusca, Cephalopoda). Reviews in Fisheries Science 19:52-61. 2011 Australia Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Molluscs; Octopus & Squid
Waite, R., E. Cooper, N. Zenny, and L. Burke. 2011. Coastal Capital: Jamaica - The Economic Value of Jamaica�s Coral Reef-Related Fisheries. Working Paper, World Resources Institute and The Nature Conservancy, Washington, D. C. (USA). 2011 Global; Jamaica Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Beaches & Nature Parks; Climate; Coastal Development; Cultural Policies; Cultural Protections; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Hotel & Food Services; Mangroves; Monetary Valuation; Ocean Acidity; Seagrasses; Sediment; Shoreline Protection; Storms & Hurricanes; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Valuation; Wholesale & Retail Trade
Williams, AJ; Little, LR; Begg, GA. 2011. Balancing indigenous and non-indigenous commercial objectives in a coral reef finfish fishery. ICES Journal of Marine Science 68:834-847. 2011 Australia Model Commercial Fisheries; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Aburto-Oropeza, O., G. Paredes, I. Mascarenas-Osorio, and E. Sala. 2010. Climatic influence on reef fish recruitment and fisheries. Marine Ecology Progress Series 410:283-287. 2010 Field Study & Monitoring; Index or Indicator Climate; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish; Special Use Permitting
Ang, T. Z. and A. Manica. 2010. Unavoidable limits on group size in a body size-based linear hierarchy. Behavioral Ecology 21:819-825. 2010 Fish; Special Use Permitting
Bellchambers, L. M., S. N. Evans, and J. J. Meeuwig. 2010. Abundance and size of western rock lobster (Panulirus cygnus) as a function of benthic habitat: implications for ecosystem-based fisheries management. Marine and Freshwater Research 61:279-287. 2010 Australia GIS & Maps Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Sponges
Christie, M. R., D. W. Johnson, C. D. Stallings, and M. A. Hixon. 2010. Self-recruitment and sweepstakes reproduction amid extensive gene flow in a coral-reef fish. Molecular Ecology 19:1042-1057. 2010 Bahamas Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Small Herbivorous Fish
Crawford, B., M. D. Herrera, N. Hernandez, C. R. Leclair, N. Jiddawi, S. Masumbuko, and M. Haws. 2010. Small Scale Fisheries Management: Lessons from Cockle Harvesters in Nicaragua and Tanzania. Coastal Management 38:195-215. 2010 Nicaragua; Tanzania; Fiji Model Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Fujita, R. M., K. T. Honey, A. Morris, J. R. Wilson, and H. Russell. 2010. Cooperative Strategies In Fisheries Management: Integrating Across Scales. Bulletin of Marine Science 86:251-271. 2010 Field Study & Monitoring Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Funding & Incentives
Garmendia, E., R. Prellezo, A. Murillas, M. Escapa, and M. Gallastegui. 2010. Weak and strong sustainability assessment in fisheries. Ecological Economics 70:96-106. 2010 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Field Study & Monitoring; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Resource Use Management
Godoy, N., S. Gelcich, J. A. Vasquez, and J. C. Castilla. 2010. Spearfishing to depletion: evidence from temperate reef fishes in Chile. Ecological Applications 20:1504-1511. 2010 Cuba Index or Indicator Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Hamel, M. A. and S. Andrefouet. 2010. Using very high resolution remote sensing for the management of coral reef fisheries: Review and perspectives. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60:1397-1405. 2010 Review; Model; GIS & Maps; Remote Sensing Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Harper, S. J. M., C. R. Bates, H. M. Guzman, and J. M. Mair. 2010. Acoustic mapping of fish aggregation areas to improve fisheries management in Las Perlas Archipelago, Pacific Panama. Ocean and Coastal Management 53:615-623. 2010 US Pacific & Hawaii; Panama GIS & Maps; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Complex Habitat & Resources; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Landuse Management
Heupel, M. R., A. J. Williams, D. J. Welch, C. R. Davies, A. Penny, J. P. Kritzer, R. J. Marriott, and B. D. Mapstone. 2010. Demographic characteristics of exploited tropical lutjanids: a comparative analysis. Fishery Bulletin 108:420-432. 2010 Finfish Harvest; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Heupel, M. R., A. J. Williams, D. J. Welch, C. R. Davies, S. Adams, G. Carlos, and B. D. Mapstone. 2010. Demography of a large exploited grouper, Plectropomus laevis: Implications for fisheries management. Marine and Freshwater Research 61:184-195. 2010 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia Model Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish
Johnson, A. E. 2010. Reducing bycatch in coral reef trap fisheries: escape gaps as a step towards sustainability. Marine Ecology Progress Series 415:201-209. 2010 South & Central America; Antilles; Caribbean Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Corallivorous Fish; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Large Herbivorous Fish; Monetary Valuation; Piscivorous Fish; Small Herbivorous Fish
Johnson, J. E. and D. J. Welch. 2010. Marine Fisheries Management in a Changing Climate: A Review of Vulnerability and Future Options. Reviews in Fisheries Science 18:106-124. 2010 Global Review Climate; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invasive Species; Ocean Acidity; Storms & Hurricanes; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Water Depth & Sea Level
Knittweis, L. and M. Wolff. 2010. Live coral trade impacts on the mushroom coral Heliofungia actiniformis in Indonesia: Potential future management approaches. Biological Conservation 143:2722-2729. 2010 Indonesia Model Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas
Kronen, M., F. Magron, B. McArdle, and A. Vunisea. 2010. Reef finfishing pressure risk model for Pacific Island countries and territories. Fisheries Research 101:1-10. 2010 Global; US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia Review; Model Corallivorous Fish; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Large Herbivorous Fish; Small Herbivorous Fish
Marriott, R. J., N. D. C. Jarvis, D. J. Adams, A. E. Gallash, J. Norriss, and S. J. Newman. 2010. Maturation and sexual ontogeny in the spangled emperor Lethrinus nebulosus. Journal of Fish Biology 76:1396-1414. 2010 Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Metcalf, S. J. 2010. Qualitative Models to Complement Quantitative Ecosystem Models for the Analysis of Data-Limited Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries. Reviews in Fisheries Science 18:248-265. 2010 Australia Model Algae; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp
Moussa, R. M. 2010. Estimation of the size of lagoon fish sold at the roadside as tui on Moorea Island (French Polynesia) by analysis of digital images. Cybium 34:73-82. 2010 Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Rudershausen, P. J., W. A. Mitchell, J. A. Buckel, E. H. Williams, and E. Hazen. 2010. Developing a two-step fishery-independent design to estimate the relative abundance of deepwater reef fish: Application to a marine protected area off the southeastern United States coast. Fisheries Research 105:254-260. 2010 Florida; US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Model Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Taylor, B. M. and J. L. McIlwain. 2010. Beyond abundance and biomass: effects of marine protected areas on the demography of a highly exploited reef fish. Marine Ecology Progress Series 411:243-258. 2010 Guam Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas
Vignon, M. and F. Morat. 2010. Environmental and genetic determinant of otolith shape revealed by a non-indigenous tropical fish. Marine Ecology Progress Series 411:231-241. 2010 US Pacific & Hawaii Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish; Special Use Permitting
Ward-Paige, C. A., C. Mora, H. K. Lotze, C. Pattengill-Semmens, L. McClenachan, E. Arias-Castro, and R. A. Myers. 2010. Large-Scale Absence of Sharks on Reefs in the Greater-Caribbean: A Footprint of Human Pressures. PLoS One 5:e11968. 2010 South & Central America; Caribbean Apex Fish Predators; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Special Use Permitting
White, J. W. 2010. Adapting the steepness parameter from stock-recruit curves for use in spatially explicit models. Fisheries Research 102:330-334. 2010 Model Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Cinner, J. E., T. R. McClanahan, N. A. J. Graham, M. S. Pratchett, S. K. Wilson, and J. B. Raina. 2009. Gear-based fisheries management as a potential adaptive response to climate change and coral mortality. Journal of Applied Ecology 46:724-732. 2009 Kenya; Papua New Guinea Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Climate; Complex Habitat & Resources; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Cinner, J. E., T. R. McClanahan, N. A. J. Graham, M. S. Pratchett, S. K. Wilson, and J.-B. Raina. 2009. Gear-based fisheries management as a potential adaptive response to climate change and coral mortality. Journal of Applied Ecology 46:724-732. 2009 Kenya; Papua New Guinea Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Climate; Complex Habitat & Resources; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Di Franco, A., S. Bussotti, A. Navone, P. Panzalis, and P. Guidetti. 2009. Evaluating effects of total and partial restrictions to fishing on Mediterranean rocky-reef fish assemblages. Marine Ecology Progress Series 387:275-285. 2009 Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Marine Protected Areas; Piscivorous Fish; Recreational Fishing; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation
Fry, G. C. and D. A. Milton. 2009. Age, growth and mortality estimates for populations of red snappers Lutjanus erythropterus and L. malabaricus from northern Australia and eastern Indonesia. Fisheries Science 75:1219-1229. 2009 Australia; Indonesia Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish
Georgiadis, M., G. Papatheodorou, E. Tzanatos, M. Geraga, A. Ramfos, C. Koutsikopoulos, and G. Ferentinos. 2009. Coralligene formations in the eastern Mediterranean Sea: Morphology, distribution, mapping and relation to fisheries in the southern Aegean Sea (Greece) based on high-resolution acoustics. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 368:44-58. 2009 GIS & Maps Algae; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Coralline Algae; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Sediment; Special Use Permitting; Substrate; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Hourigan, T. F. 2009. Managing fishery impacts on deep-water coral ecosystems of the USA: emerging best practices. Marine Ecology Progress Series 397:333-340. 2009 US Pacific & Hawaii; US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Field Study & Monitoring Collaboration & Partnering; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Sponges; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Juan-Jorda, M. J., J. A. Barth, M. E. Clarke, and W. W. Wakefield. 2009. Groundfish species associations with distinct oceanographic habitats in the Northern California Current. Fisheries Oceanography 18:1-19. 2009 US Pacific & Hawaii; Pacific Ocean Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Discharges; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Salinity; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Kinney, M. J. and C. A. Simpfendorfer. 2009. Reassessing the value of nursery areas to shark conservation and management. Conservation Letters 2:53-60. 2009 GIS & Maps Apex Fish Predators; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Knittweis, L., W. E. Kraemer, J. Timm, and M. Kochzius. 2009. Genetic structure of Heliofungia actiniformis (Scleractinia: Fungiidae) populations in the Indo-Malay Archipelago: Implications for live coral trade management efforts. Conservation Genetics 10:241-249. 2009 US Pacific & Hawaii; Indonesia Aquarium & Pet Trade; Stony Coral; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Langhamer, O. and D. Wilhelmsson. 2009. Colonisation of fish and crabs of wave energy foundations and the effects of manufactured holes - A field experiment. Marine Environmental Research 68:151-157. 2009 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA); Atlantic Ocean; Europe Field Study & Monitoring Artificial Habitat; Complex Habitat & Resources; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Seastars; Shoreline Protection
Martin-Smith, K. 2009. A Risk-Management Framework For Avoiding Significant Adverse Impacts Of Bottom Fishing Gear On Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems. Ccamlr Science 16:177-193. 2009 Review; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Marine Birds; Scientific Research; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Nelson, D.M., T. Haverland, and E. Finnen. 2009. EcoGIS - GIS Tools for Ecosystem Approaches to Fisheries Management. Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 75, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring (MD, USA). 2009 Field Study & Monitoring; GIS & Maps; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Collaboration & Partnering; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Penney, A. J., S. J. Parker, and J. H. Brown. 2009. Protection measures implemented by New Zealand for vulnerable marine ecosystems in the South Pacific Ocean. Marine Ecology Progress Series 397:341-354. 2009 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia; US East Coast (NC, SC, GA); Pacific Ocean Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Perez, A. 2009. Fisheries management at the tri-national border between Belize, Guatemala and Honduras. Marine Policy 33:195-200. 2009 South & Central America; Belize; Honduras Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Storms & Hurricanes; Tourism & Recreation
Radermacher, P., B. R. Schone, E. Gischler, W. Oschmann, J. Thebault, and J. Fiebig. 2009. Sclerochronology - a highly versatile tool for mariculture and reconstruction of life history traits of the queen conch, Strombus gigas (Gastropoda). Aquatic Living Resources 22:307-318. 2009 South & Central America; US East Coast (NC, SC, GA); Belize Field Study & Monitoring; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Aquaculture; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Non-point Source Runoff; Snails & Conch; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Seas At Risk. 2009. Moving Towards Low Impact Fisheries In Europe Policy Hurdles & Actions. 2009 Southeast Asia; Europe Review Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Banks, Credit, & Securities; Climate; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Funding & Incentives; Special Use Permitting; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage; Utility Line Construction & Maintenance
Shipp, R. L. and S. A. Bortone. 2009. A prospective of the importance of artificial habitat on the management of red snapper in the Gulf of Mexico. Reviews in Fisheries Science 17:41-47. 2009 South & Central America; Mexico Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Artificial Habitat; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Piscivorous Fish; Special Use Permitting
Silvano, R. A. M., M. Ramires, and J. Zuanon. 2009. Effects of fisheries management on fish communities in the floodplain lakes of a Brazilian Amazonian Reserve. Ecology Of Freshwater Fish 18:156-166. 2009 Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Stelzenmuller, V., F. Maynou, and P. Martin. 2009. Patterns of species and functional diversity around a coastal marine reserve: a fisheries perspective. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 19:554-565. 2009 Spain GIS & Maps; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Marine Protected Areas; Monetary Valuation; Seagrasses; Special Use Permitting
Tissot, B. N., W. J. Walsh, and M. A. Hixon. 2009. Hawaiian Islands Marine Ecosystem Case Study: Ecosystem- and Community-Based Management in Hawaii. Coastal Management 37:255-273. 2009 US Pacific & Hawaii Model Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Special Use Permitting
Van Herwerden, L., J. H. Choat, S. J. Newman, M. Leray, and G. Hillersoy. 2009. Complex patterns of population structure and recruitment of Plectropomus leopardus (Pisces: Epinephelidae) in the Indo-West Pacific: implications for fisheries management. Marine Biology 156:1595-1607. 2009 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia; New Caledonia; Taiwan Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Van Herwerden, L., J. Howard Choat, S. J. Newman, M. Leray, and G. Hillersoy. 2009. Complex patterns of population structure and recruitment of Plectropomus leopardus (Pisces: Epinephelidae) in the Indo-West Pacific: implications for fisheries management. Marine Biology 13-Jan. 2009 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia; New Caledonia; Taiwan Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
van Herwerden, L., W. J. Aspden, S. J. Newman, G. G. Pegg, L. Briskey, and W. Sinclair. 2009. A comparison of the population genetics of Lethrinus miniatus and Lutjanus sebae from the east and west coasts of Australia: Evidence for panmixia and isolation. Fisheries Research 100:148-155. 2009 Australia Climate; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Tourism & Recreation
Vu, I., G. Smelick, S. Harris, S. C. Lee, E. Weil, R. F. Whitehead, and J. F. Bruno. 2009. Macroalgae has no effect on the severity and dynamics of Caribbean yellow band disease. PLoS One 4. 2009 South & Central America; Caribbean Field Study & Monitoring Algae; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Pathogens; Stony Coral
Walker, S. P. W. and M. I. McCormick. 2009. Fish ears are sensitive to sex change. Biology Letters 5:73-76. 2009 Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management
Wells, S. 2009. Dynamite fishing in northern Tanzania - pervasive, problematic and yet preventable. Marine Pollution Bulletin 58:20-23. 2009 Tanzania Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Tourism & Recreation
Ainsworth, C. H., D. A. Varkey, and T. J. Pitcher. 2008. Ecosystem simulations supporting ecosystem-based fisheries management in the Coral Triangle, Indonesia. Ecological Modelling 214:361-374. 2008 Indonesia Field Study & Monitoring; Model Climate; Commercial Fisheries; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish
Appeldoorn, R. S. 2008. Transforming reef fisheries management: Application of an ecosystem-based approach in the USA Caribbean. Environmental Conservation 35:232-241. 2008 South & Central America; US Virgin Islands; Puerto Rico; Caribbean Field Study & Monitoring; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Special Use Permitting
Clua, E. and P. Legendre. 2008. Shifting dominance among Scarid species on reefs representing a gradient of fishing pressure. Aquatic Living Resource 21:339-348. 2008 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia; Pacific Ocean; Tonga Index or Indicator Corallivorous Fish; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Large Herbivorous Fish
Eggleston, D. B., D. M. Parsons, G. T. Kellison, G. R. Plaia, and E. G. Johnson. 2008. Functional response of sport divers to lobsters with application to fisheries management. Ecological Applications 18:258-272. 2008 South & Central America; Florida; Cuba; Caribbean Index or Indicator Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Commercial Fisheries; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Freire, K. M. F., V. Christensen, and D. Pauly. 2008. Description of the East Brazil Large Marine Ecosystem using a trophic model. Scientia Marina 72:477-491. 2008 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Model Algae; Apex Fish Predators; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Plankton; Primary Production; Seagrasses; Whales & Dolphins
Goffredo, S. and H. R. Lasker. 2008. An adaptive management approach to an octocoral fishery based on the Beverton-Holt model. Coral Reefs 27:751-761. 2008 South & Central America; Bahamas; Caribbean Model Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Octocoral; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics Sources
Harborne, A. R., P. J. Mumby, C. V. Kappel, C. P. Dahlgren, F. Micheli, K. E. Holmes, J. N. Sanchirico, K. Broad, I. A. Elliott, and D. R. Brumbaugh. 2008. Reserve effects and natural variation in coral reef communities. Journal of Applied Ecology 45:1010-1018. 2008 South & Central America; Bahamas; Caribbean Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Corallivorous Fish; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Large Herbivorous Fish; Octocoral; Piscivorous Fish; Small Herbivorous Fish; Stony Coral
Kendall, M. S., L. J. Bauer, and C. F. G. Jeffrey. 2008. Influence of benthic features and fishing pressure on size and distribution of three exploited reef fishes from the southeastern United States. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 137:1134-1146. 2008 Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector
Maina, J., V. Venus, T. R. McClanahan, and M. Ateweberhan. 2008. Modelling susceptibility of coral reefs to environmental stress using remote sensing data and GIS models. Ecological Modelling 212:180-199. 2008 Indian Ocean; Madagascar; India Model; GIS & Maps; Remote Sensing; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Climate; Decision Support; Light; Marine Protected Areas
Mapleston, A., D. Welch, G. A. Begg, M. McLennan, D. Mayer, and I. Brown. 2008. Effect of changes in hook pattern and size on catch rate, hooking location, injury and bleeding for a number of tropical reef fish species. Fisheries Research 91:203-211. 2008 Australia Fish; Fishing Sector
McClanahan, T. R., C. C. Hicks, and E. S. Darling. 2008. Malthusian overfishing and efforts to overcome it on Kenyan coral reefs. Ecological Applications 18:1516-1529. 2008 Kenya Model Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Small Herbivorous Fish
Metcalf, S. J., J. M. Dambacher, A. J. Hobday, and J. M. Lyle. 2008. Importance of trophic information, simplification and aggregation error in ecosystem models. Marine Ecology Progress Series 360:25-36. 2008 Model Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Planktivorous Fish
Patterson, H. M. and S. E. Swearer. 2008. Origin of yellowtail kingfish, Seriola lalandi, from Lord Howe Island, Australia, inferred from otolith chemistry. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 42:409-416. 2008 Australia Commercial Fisheries; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Stallings, C. D. 2008. Indirect effects of an exploited predator on recruitment of coral-reef fishes. Ecology 89:2090-2095. 2008 Bahamas Field Study & Monitoring; Lab Study Apex Fish Predators; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish
Steyn, E., P. J. Fielding, and M. H. Schleyer. 2008. The artisanal fishery for East Coast rock lobsters Panulirus homarus along the Wild Coast, South Africa. African Journal of Marine Science 30:497-506. 2008 South Africa Index or Indicator Commercial Fisheries; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Hotel & Food Services; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp
Vignon, M., F. Morat, R. Galzin, and P. Sasal. 2008. Evidence for spatial limitation of the bluestripe snapper Lutjanus kasmira in French Polynesia from parasite and otolith shape analysis. Journal of Fish Biology 73:2305-2320. 2008 US Pacific & Hawaii Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish
Welch, D. J., B. D. Mapstone, and G. A. Begg. 2008. Spatial and temporal variation and effects of changes in management in discard rates from the commercial reef line fishery of the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Fisheries Research 90:247-260. 2008 Australia Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector
Williams, A. J., L. M. Currey, G. A. Begg, C. D. Murchie, and A. C. Ballagh. 2008. Population biology of coral trout species in eastern Torres Strait: Implications for fishery management. Continental Shelf Research 28:2129-2142. 2008 Australia Commercial Fisheries; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector
Aburto-Oropeza, O., E. Sala, G. Paredes, A. Mendoza, and E. Ballesteros. 2007. Predictability of reef fish recruitment in a highly variable nursery habitat. Ecology 88:2220-2228. 2007 South & Central America; Mexico Field Study & Monitoring; Index or Indicator Climate; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Fleshy Macroalgae; Nutrients; Piscivorous Fish
Brehmer, P., S. Georgakarakos, E. Josse, V. Trygonis, and J. Dalen. 2007. Adaptation of fisheries sonar for monitoring schools of large pelagic fish: Dependence of schooling behaviour on fish finding efficiency. Aquatic Living Resource 20:377-384. 2007 Field Study & Monitoring; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Aquaculture; Artificial Habitat; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Chakalall, B., R. Mahon, P. McConney, L. Nurse, and D. Oderson. 2007. Governance of fisheries and other living marine resources in the Wider Caribbean. Fisheries Research 87:92-99. 2007 South & Central America; Caribbean Model Collaboration & Partnering; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Tourism & Recreation
Cheung, W. W. L., R. Watson, T. Morato, T. J. Pitcher, and D. Pauly. 2007. Intrinsic vulnerability in the global fish catch. Marine Ecology Progress Series 333:12-Jan. 2007 Global; South & Central America; US Pacific & Hawaii; Caribbean Index or Indicator; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Cinner, J. E. and S. Aswani. 2007. Integrating customary management into marine conservation. Biological Conservation 140:201-216. 2007 Review Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Resource Use Management
Cinner, J. E., S. G. Sutton, and T. G. Bond. 2007. Socioeconomic thresholds that affect use of customary fisheries management tools. Conservation Biology 21:1603-1611. 2007 US Pacific & Hawaii; Papua New Guinea Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Resource Use Management
De Santo, E. M. and P. J. S. Jones. 2007. Offshore marine conservation policies in the North East Atlantic: Emerging tensions and opportunities. Marine Policy 31:336-347. 2007 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA); Europe Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Frisch, A. J. 2007. Short- and long-term movements of painted lobster (Panulirus versicolor) on a coral reef at Northwest Island, Australia. Coral Reefs 26:311-317. 2007 Australia Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp
Mangi, S. C., C. M. Roberts, and L. D. Rodwell. 2007. Reef fisheries management in Kenya: Preliminary approach using the driver-pressure-state-impacts-response (DPSIR) scheme of indicators. Ocean and Coastal Management 50:463-480. 2007 Kenya Review; Index or Indicator; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Mbui, J. M. 2007. Modelling ecological susceptibility of coral reefs to environmental stress using remote sensing, GIS, and in situ observations: a case study in the Western Indian Ocean. Masters Thesis. International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation, Enschede, The Netherlands. 2007 Global; Indian Ocean; India Model; GIS & Maps; Remote Sensing Light; Mitigation
Morrison, A. E. and T. L. Hunt. 2007. Human impacts on the nearshore environment: An archaeological case study from Kaua'i, Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Science 61:325-345. 2007 US Pacific & Hawaii Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Molluscs
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007. National Artificial Reef Plan: Guidelines for Siting, Construction, Development, and Assessment of Artificial Reefs. US Department of Commerce. 2007 Field Study & Monitoring; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Artificial Habitat; Banks, Credit, & Securities; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Construction Codes & Projects; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Military; Mitigation; Schools & Colleges
Pears, R. J., J. H. Choat, B. D. Mapstone, and G. A. Begg. 2007. Reproductive biology of a large, aggregation-spawning serranid, Epinephelus fuscoguttatus (Forsskål): Management implications. Journal of Fish Biology 71:795-817. 2007 Australia Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish
Rhodes, K. L. and M. H. Tupper. 2007. A preliminary market-based analysis of the Pohnpei, Micronesia, grouper (Serranidae: Epinephelinae) fishery reveals unsustainable fishing practices. Coral Reefs 26:335-344. 2007 US Pacific & Hawaii; Micronesia Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Apex Fish Predators; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Piscivorous Fish
Rudershausen, P. J., J. A. Buckel, and E. H. Williams. 2007. Discard composition and release fate in the snapper and grouper commercial hook-and-line fishery in North Carolina, USA. Fisheries Management and Ecology 14:103-113. 2007 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Model Commercial Fisheries; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish
Ryan, D. A., B. P. Brooke, L. B. Collins, G. A. Kendrick, K. J. Baxter, A. N. Bickers, P. J. W. Siwabessy, and C. B. Pattiaratchi. 2007. The influence of geomorphology and sedimentary processes on shallow-water benthic habitat distribution: Esperance Bay, Western Australia. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 72:379-386. 2007 Australia Field Study & Monitoring; GIS & Maps Calcium Carbonate Deposition; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Seagrasses; Sediment; Shoreline Protection; Substrate
Santos, M. N. and C. C. Monteiro. 2007. A fourteen-year overview of the fish assemblages and yield of the two oldest Algarve artificial reefs (southern Portugal). Hydrobiologia 580:225-231. 2007 Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Artificial Habitat; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Starr, R. M., E. Sala, E. Ballesteros, and M. Zabala. 2007. Spatial dynamics of the Nassau grouper Epinephelus striatus in a Caribbean atoll. Marine Ecology Progress Series 343:239-249. 2007 South & Central America; Caribbean Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish
Terashima, H., M. Sato, H. Kawasaki, and D. Thiam. 2007. Quantitative biological assessment of a newly installed artificial reef in Yenne, Senegal. Zoological Studies 46:69-82. 2007 Artificial Habitat; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Unsworth, R. K. F., A. Powell, F. Hukom, and D. J. Smith. 2007. The ecology of Indo-Pacific grouper (Serranidae) species and the effects of a small scale no take area on grouper assemblage, abundance and size frequency distribution. Marine Biology 152:243-254. 2007 US Pacific & Hawaii; Indonesia Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish
Vincent, A. C. J., J. J. Meeuwig, M. G. Pajaro, and N. C. Perante. 2007. Characterizing a small-scale, data-poor, artisanal fishery: Seahorses in the central Philippines. Fisheries Research 86:207-215. 2007 Philippines Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Williams, A. J., B. D. Mapstone, and C. R. Davies. 2007. Spatial and interannual patterns in growth of an exploited coral-reef fish. Journal of Fish Biology 71:970-992. 2007 Australia Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Wolfe, D., C. Dolan, and D. Hoskins. 2007. Stormy voyage. Environmental Forum 24:26-30. 2007 Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Recreational Fishing; Storms & Hurricanes; Tourism & Recreation
Alcala, A. C. and G. R. Russ. 2006. No-take marine reserves and reef fisheries management in the Philippines: A new people power revolution. Ambio 35:245-254. 2006 Oman; Philippines Model Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Bortone, S. A. 2006. A perspective of artificial reef research: The past, present, and future. Bulletin of Marine Science 78:8-Jan. 2006 Artificial Habitat; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Funding & Donations; Funding & Incentives
Calado, R. 2006. Marine ornamental species from European waters: A valuable overlooked resource or a future threat for the conservation of marine ecosystems? Scientia Marina 70:389-398. 2006 Europe Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Wholesale & Retail Trade
Cinner, J. E. and T. R. McClanahan. 2006. Socioeconomic factors that lead to overfishing in small-scale coral reef fisheries of Papua New Guinea. Environmental Conservation 33:73-80. 2006 Papua New Guinea Index or Indicator Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Cinner, J., M. J. Marnane, T. R. McClanahan, and G. R. Almany. 2006. Periodic closures as adaptive coral reef management in the Indo-Pacific. Ecology and Society 11. 2006 US Pacific & Hawaii; Papua New Guinea; Indonesia Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Gravel, M., R. Vago, and M. Tabrizian. 2006. Use of natural coralline biomaterials as reinforcing and gas-forming agent for developing novel hybrid biomatrices: Microarchitectural and mechanical studies. Tissue Engineering 12:589-600. 2006 Calcium Carbonate Deposition; CO2
Halls, A. S., R. L. Welcomme, and R. W. Burn. 2006. The relationship between multi-species catch and effort: Among fishery comparisons. Fisheries Research 77:78-83. 2006 South & Central America Model Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Kadison, E., R. S. Nemeth, S. Herzlieb, and J. Blondeau. 2006. Temporal and spatial dynamics of Lutjanus cyanopterus (Pisces: Lutjanidae) and L. jocu spawning aggregations in the United States Virgin Islands. Revista de Biologia Tropical 54:69-78. 2006 South & Central America; Florida; US Virgin Islands; Puerto Rico; Caribbean Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish
Kaiser, M. J., K. R. Clarke, H. Hinz, M. C. V. Austen, P. J. Somerfield, and I. Karakassis. 2006. Global analysis of response and recovery of benthic biota to fishing. Marine Ecology Progress Series 311:14-Jan. 2006 Global Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Marine Worms; Octocoral; Sediment; Sponges; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Mangi, S. C. and C. M. Roberts. 2006. Quantifying the environmental impacts of artisanal fishing gear on Kenya's coral reef ecosystems. Marine Pollution Bulletin 52:1646-1660. 2006 Kenya Field Study & Monitoring Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Physical Damage; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
McClanahan, T. R., E. Verheij, and J. Maina. 2006. Comparing the management effectiveness of a marine park and a multiple-use collaborative fisheries management area in East Africa. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 16:147-165. 2006 Kenya; Tanzania Algae; Climate; Collaboration & Partnering; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Sea Urchins; Seagrasses; Stony Coral
Methratta, E. T. and J. S. Link. 2006. Seasonal variation in groundfish habitat associations in the Gulf of Maine-Georges Bank region. Marine Ecology Progress Series 326:245-256. 2006 Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Substrate
Morgan, S. K. and S. A. Lourie. 2006. Threatened fishes of the world: Hippocampus comes cantor 1850 (Syngnathidae). Environmental Biology of Fishes 75:311-313. 2006 Global; Thailand; Malaysia; Vietnam; Indonesia; Philippines Field Study & Monitoring; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Biomedical Research Policies; Climate; Collaboration & Partnering; Complex Habitat & Resources; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Protected Areas; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics; Seagrasses; Sponges; Stony Coral; Substrate
Pears, R. J., J. H. Choat, B. D. Mapstone, and G. A. Begg. 2006. Demography of a large grouper, Epinephelus fuscoguttatus, from Australia's Great Barrier Reef: Implications for fishery management. Marine Ecology Progress Series 307:259-272. 2006 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Live Collection; Piscivorous Fish; Resource Use Management; Special Use Permitting
Silvano, R. A. M., P. F. L. MacCord, R. V. Lima, and A. Begossi. 2006. When does this fish spawn? Fishermen's local knowledge of migration and reproduction of Brazilian coastal fishes. Environmental Biology of Fishes 76:371-386. 2006 Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Smith, M. D., J. Zhang, and F. C. Coleman. 2006. Effectiveness of marine reserves for large-scale fisheries management. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 63:153-164. 2006 South & Central America; Mexico Model Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Stone, R. P. 2006. Coral habitat in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska: Depth distribution, fine-scale species associations, and fisheries interactions. Coral Reefs 25:229-238. 2006 Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Hydrocoral; Octocoral; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Tsounis, G., S. Rossi, M. Aranguren, J.-M. Gili, and W. Arntz. 2006. Effects of spatial variability and colony size on the reproductive output and gonadal development cycle of the Mediterranean red coral (Corallium rubrum L.). Marine Biology 148:513-527. 2006 Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Octocoral; Special Use Permitting
Williams, A. J., C. R. Davies, and B. D. Mapstone. 2006. Regional patterns in reproductive biology of Lethrinus miniatus on the Great Barrier Reef. Marine and Freshwater Research 57:403-414. 2006 Australia Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Abesamis, R. A. and G. R. Russ. 2005. Density-dependent spillover from a marine reserve: Long-term evidence. Ecological Applications 15:1798-1812. 2005 Philippines Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Bergenius, M. A. J., B. D. Mapstone, G. A. Begg, and C. D. Murchie. 2005. The use of otolith chemistry to determine stock structure of three epinepheline serranid coral reef fishes on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Fisheries Research 72:253-270. 2005 Australia Apex Fish Predators; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Clua, E., B. Beliaeff, C. Chauvet, G. David, J. Ferraris, M. Kronen, M. Kulbicki, P. Labrosse, Y. Letourneur, D. Pelletier, O. Thebaud, and M. Leopold. 2005. Towards multidisciplinary indicator dashboards for coral reef fisheries management. Aquatic Living Resource 18:199-213. 2005 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia Field Study & Monitoring; Index or Indicator; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Banks, Credit, & Securities; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Collaboration & Partnering; Commercial Fisheries; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
D'Agnes, H., J. Castro, L. D'Agnes, and R. Montebon. 2005. Gender issues within the population-environment nexus in Philippines coastal areas. Coastal Management 33:447-458. 2005 Philippines Review; Field Study & Monitoring; Index or Indicator Cultural Policies; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Mangroves; Seagrasses
Graham, N. A. J., N. K. Dulvy, S. Jennings, and N. V. C. Polunin. 2005. Size-spectra as indicators of the effects of fishing on coral reef fish assemblages. Coral Reefs 24:118-124. 2005 Fiji Index or Indicator Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Gribble, N. A. 2005. MODSIM 2005 International Congress on Modelling and Simulation. Modelling and Simulation Society of Australia and New Zealand. 2005 Australia Model; Index or Indicator; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Commercial Fisheries; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Mangroves; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Fishing; Seagrasses; Tourism & Recreation
Hardin, M. P. and R. S. Legore. 2005. Development of management policy for the marine ornamental fish and invertebrate fishery in Puerto Rico: A case study. Revista de Biologia Tropical 53:139-144. 2005 South & Central America; Puerto Rico; Caribbean Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrates; Resource Use Management
LeGore, R. S., M. P. Hardin, and D. Ter-Ghazaryan. 2005. Organization and operation of the marine ornamental fish and invertebrate export fishery in Puerto Rico. Revista de Biologia Tropical 53:145-153. 2005 South & Central America; Puerto Rico; Caribbean Anemones & Zooanthids; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Echinoderms; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Mangroves; Marine Worms; Seagrasses; Seastars; Skeletal Coral; Snails & Conch
McClanahan, T. R., J. Maina, and J. Davies. 2005. Perceptions of resource users and managers towards fisheries management options in Kenyan coral reefs. Fisheries Management and Ecology 12:105-112. 2005 Kenya Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas
Crawford, B. R., A. Siahainenia, C. Rotinsulu, and A. Sukmara. 2004. Compliance and enforcement of community-based coastal resource management regulations in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Coastal Management 32:39-50. 2004 US Pacific & Hawaii; Oman; Indonesia Review Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Resource Use Management; Special Use Permitting; Stony Coral
Denny, C. M., T. J. Willis, and R. C. Babcock. 2004. Rapid recolonisation of snapper Pagrus auratus: Sparidae within an offshore island marine reserve after implementation of no-take status. Marine Ecology Progress Series 272:183-190. 2004 Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Piscivorous Fish; Special Use Permitting
Evans, R. D. and G. R. Russ. 2004. Larger biomass of targeted reef fish in no-take marine reserves on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 14:505-519. 2004 Australia Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas
Guidetti, P., A. Terlizzi, and F. Boero. 2004. Effects of the edible sea urchin, Paracentrotus lividus, fishery along the Apulian rocky coast (SE Italy, Mediterranean Sea). Fisheries Research 66:287-297. 2004 Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Sea Urchins; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Guillaume, M. M. M. 2004. Corals and coral trade [Les coraux et leur commerce]. Bulletin de la Societe Zoologique de France 129:28-Nov. 2004 US Pacific & Hawaii; Japan; Solomon Islands; Vanuatu; Fiji; Indonesia; Philippines; Taiwan; Europe; Spain; France Model Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Hydrocoral; Monetary Valuation; Octocoral; Ornamental Jewelry & Art
Kritzer, J. P. 2004. Sex-specific growth and mortality, spawning season, and female maturation of the stripey bass (Lutjanus carponotatus) on the Great Barrier Reef. Fishery Bulletin 102:94-107. 2004 Australia Index or Indicator Fish; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish
Meester, G. A., A. Mehrotra, J. S. Ault, and E. K. Baker. 2004. Designing marine reserves for fishery management. Management Science 50:1031-1043. 2004 Global; Florida Model Commercial Fisheries; Complex Habitat & Resources; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Ochiewo, J. 2004. Changing fisheries practices and their socioeconomic implications in South Coast Kenya. Ocean and Coastal Management 47:389-408. 2004 Kenya Model Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Russ, G. R., A. C. Alcala, A. P. Maypa, H. P. Calumpong, and A. T. White. 2004. Marine reserve benefits local fisheries. Ecological Applications 14:597-606. 2004 Philippines Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Small Herbivorous Fish; Tourism & Recreation
Shipp, R. L. 2004. Harvest benefits: Marine reserves or traditional fishery management tools. Pages 125-131 in American Fisheries Society Symposium. 2004 South & Central America; US Pacific & Hawaii; US East Coast (NC, SC, GA); Mexico Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector
Shuman, C. S., G. Hodgson, and R. F. Ambrose. 2004. Managing the marine aquarium trade: Is eco-certification the answer? Environmental Conservation 31:339-348. 2004 Global; Indonesia; Philippines Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Baine, M. and J. Side. 2003. The role of fishermen and other stakeholders in the North Sea rigs-to-reefs debate. Pages 14-Jan in American Fisheries Society Symposium. 2003 Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Oil & Gas Rigs
Brule, T., X. Renan, T. Coles-Marrufo, Y. Hauyon, A. N. Tuz-Sulub, and C. Deniel. 2003. Reproduction in the protogynous black grouper (Mycteroperca bonaci (Poey)) from the southern Gulf of Mexico. Fishery Bulletin 101:463-475. 2003 South & Central America; Mexico Commercial Fisheries; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Piscivorous Fish
Eggleston, D. B., E. G. Johnson, G. T. Kellison, and D. A. Nadeau. 2003. Intense removal and non-saturating functional responses by recreational divers on spiny lobster Panulirus argus. Marine Ecology Progress Series 257:197-207. 2003 South & Central America; Florida; Cuba; Caribbean Index or Indicator Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Graham, N. A. J., R. D. Evans, and G. R. Russ. 2003. The effects of marine reserve protection on the trophic relationships of reef fishes on the Great Barrier Reef. Environmental Conservation 30:200-208. 2003 Australia Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Complex Habitat & Resources; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Gribble, N.A. 2003. GBR-prawn: modelling ecosystem impacts of changes in fisheries management of the commercial prawn (shrimp) trawl fishery in the far northern Great Barrier Reef. Fisheries Research 65:493-506. 2003 Australia Model Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Complex Habitat & Resources; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Birds; Piscivorous Fish; Sea Turtles; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Russ, G. R. and A. C. Alcala. 2003. Marine reserves: Rates and patterns of recovery and decline of predatory fish, 1983-2000. Ecological Applications 13:1553-1565. 2003 Philippines Index or Indicator Apex Fish Predators; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Russ, G. R., A. C. Alcala, and A. P. Maypa. 2003. Spillover from marine reserves: The case of Naso vlamingii at Apo Island, the Philippines. Marine Ecology Progress Series 264:15-20. 2003 Philippines Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Small Herbivorous Fish
Valesini, F. J., K. R. Clarke, I. Eliot, and I. C. Potter. 2003. A user-friendly quantitative approach to classifying nearshore marine habitats along a heterogeneous coast. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 57:163-177. 2003 Australia Beaches & Nature Parks; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrates; Plankton; Seagrasses
Valette-Silver, N. J. and D. Scavia. 2003. Ecological Forecasting: New Tools for Coastal and Ecosystem Management. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 1. 2003 Field Study & Monitoring; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Climate; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Marine Birds; Water Depth & Sea Level
Walmsley, S. F. and A. T. White. 2003. Influence of social, management and enforcement factors on the long-term ecological effects of marine sanctuaries. Environmental Conservation 30:388-407. 2003 Cuba; Philippines Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Special Use Permitting; Stony Coral; Substrate
Weninger, Q. and J. R. Waters. 2003. Economic benefits of management reform in the northern Gulf of Mexico reef fish fishery. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 46:207-230. 2003 South & Central America; Mexico Fish; Fishing Sector
Zeller, D., S. L. Stoute, and G. R. Russ. 2003. Movements of reef fishes across marine reserve boundaries: Effects of manipulating a density gradient. Marine Ecology Progress Series 254:269-280. 2003 Australia Apex Fish Predators; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Cochrane, K.L., editor. 2002. A Fishery Manager's Guidebook. Management Measures and their application. Fisheries Technical Paper 424, FAO, Rome. 2002 Review; Field Study & Monitoring Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Collaboration & Partnering; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Gullstrom, M., M. De La Torre Castro, S. O. Bandeira, M. Bjork, M. Dahlberg, N. Kautsky, P. Ronnback, and M. C. Ohman. 2002. Seagrass ecosystems in the Western Indian Ocean. Ambio 31:588-596. 2002 Indian Ocean; Somalia; Kenya; Tanzania; Mozambique; Comoros; Madagascar; Seychelles; Mauritius; Reunion; India; South Africa; France Review; Field Study & Monitoring Complex Habitat & Resources; Corallivorous Fish; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Large Herbivorous Fish; Mangroves; Nutrients; Primary Production; Seagrasses; Sediment
McClanahan, T. R. 2002. The effects of time, habitat, and fisheries management on Kenyan coral-reef-associated gastropods. Ecological Applications 12:1484-1495. 2002 Kenya Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Snails & Conch
Ovenden, J. R., J. Lloyd, S. J. Newman, C. P. Keenan, and L. S. Slater. 2002. Spatial genetic subdivision between northern Australian and southeast Asian populations of Pristipomoides multidens: A tropical marine reef fish species. Fisheries Research 59:57-69. 2002 Australia; Papua New Guinea; Southeast Asia; Indonesia Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish
Sebens, K. P. 2002. Energetic constraints, size gradients, and size limits in benthic marine invertebrates. Pages 853-861 in Integrative and Comparative Biology. 2002 Review; Model Anemones & Zooanthids; Octocoral
Tupper, M. H., K. Wickstrom, R. Hilborn, C. M. Roberts, J. A. Bohnsack, F. Gell, J. P. Hawkins, and R. Goodridge. 2002. Marine reserves and fisheries management. Science 295:1233-1235. 2002 Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Westmacott, S. 2002. Where should the focus be in tropical integrated coastal management? Coastal Management 30:67-84. 2002 Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Mangroves
Gorfine, H. K., B. L. Taylor, and T. I. Walker. 2001. Triggers and targets: What are we aiming for with abalone fisheries models in Australia? Journal of Shellfish Research 20:803-811. 2001 Australia Model; Index or Indicator Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Courtney, C. A. and A. T. White. 2000. Integrated coastal management in the Philippines: Testing new paradigms. Coastal Management 28:39-53. 2000 Philippines Collaboration & Partnering; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Mangroves; Resource Use Management
Dudgeon, C. L., N. Gust, and D. Blair. 2000. No apparent genetic basis to demographic differences in scarid fishes across continental shelf of the great barrier reef. Marine Biology 137:1059-1066. 2000 Australia Corallivorous Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Large Herbivorous Fish
Huber, M. E. and G. B. K. Baines. 2000. The Coral, Solomon and Bismarck Seas Region. Seas at the millennium - an environmental evaluation - Volume 2 425-446. 2000 Global; US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia; Solomon Islands; Vanuatu; New Caledonia; Papua New Guinea Field Study & Monitoring Agriculture; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Discharges; Echinoderms; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Forestry; Mangroves; Molluscs; Point Source Discharges; Primary Production; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Sediment; Wetlands
Labrosse, P., R. Fichez, R. Farman, and T. Adams. 2000. New Caledonia. Seas at the millennium - an environmental evaluation - Volume 2 723-736. 2000 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia; New Caledonia; Europe; France Agriculture; Aquaculture; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Banks, Credit, & Securities; Commercial Fishing Boats; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Mangroves; Sea Turtles; Special Use Permitting; Valuation
Rice, M. A., A. Valliere, and A. Caporelli. 2000. A review of shellfish restoration and management projects in Rhode Island. Journal of Shellfish Research 19:401-408. 2000 Review Aquaculture; Artificial Habitat; Bivalves; Commercial Fisheries; Docks & Marinas; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Molluscs; Petroleum Spills; Ports & Harbors; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Al-Jufaili, S., M. Al-Jabri, A. Al-Baluchi, R. M. Baldwin, S. G. Wilson, F. West, and A. D. Matthews. 1999. Human impacts on coral reefs in the Sultanate of Oman. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 49:65-74. 1999 Oman Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Nutrients; Pathogens; Seastars; Snails & Conch; Storms & Hurricanes; Tourism & Recreation
Charton, J. A. G. and A. P. Ruzafa. 1999. Ecological heterogeneity and the evaluation of the effects of marine reserves. Fisheries Research 42:20-Jan. 1999 Review; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Complex Habitat & Resources; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Edgar, G. J. and N. S. Barrett. 1999. Effects of the declaration of marine reserves on Tasmanian reef fishes, invertebrates and plants. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 242:107-144. 1999 Algae; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Invertebrates; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Protected Areas; Planktivorous Fish
Hastings, A. and L. W. Botsford. 1999. Equivalence in yield from marine reserves and traditional fisheries management. Science 284:1537-1538. 1999 Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrates
Holmlund, C. M. and M. Hammer. 1999. Ecosystem services generated by fish populations. Ecological Economics 29:253-268. 1999 Global Review Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Tourism & Recreation
Swearer, S. E., J. E. Caselle, D. W. Lea, and R. R. Warner. 1999. Larval retention and recruitment in an island population of a coral-reef fish. Nature 402:799-802. 1999 Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Nutrients
Zann, L. P. 1999. A new (old) approach to inshore resources management in Samoa. Ocean and Coastal Management 42:569-590. 1999 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia; Samoa Model Commercial Fisheries; Cultural Policies; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Housing; Special Use Permitting; Wetlands
Bohnsack, J. A. 1998. Application of marine reserves to reef fisheries management. Austral Ecology 23:298-304. 1998 Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Bortone, S. A. 1998. Resolving the attraction-production dilemma in artificial reef research: Some Yeas and Nays. Fisheries 23:10-Jun. 1998 Model Artificial Habitat; Banks, Credit, & Securities; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Dalzell, P. 1998. The role of archaeological and cultural-historical records in long-range coastal fisheries resources management strategies and policies in the Pacific Islands. Ocean and Coastal Management 40:237-252. 1998 US Pacific & Hawaii Agriculture; Cultural Policies; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Molluscs
Fouda, M. M., G. V. Hermosa Jr., and S. M. Al-Harthi. 1998. Status of fish biodiversity in the Sultanate of Oman. Italian Journal of Zoology 65:521-525. 1998 US Pacific & Hawaii; Oman Aquaculture; Commercial Fisheries; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Natural Gas & Electric Power; Special Use Permitting
Leung, P. S., J. Muraoka, S. T. Nakamoto, and S. Pooley. 1998. Evaluating fisheries management options in Hawaii using analytic hierarchy process (AHP). Fisheries Research 36:171-183. 1998 US Pacific & Hawaii Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
McConney, P. and R. Mahon. 1998. Introducing fishery management planning to Barbados. Ocean and Coastal Management 39:189-195. 1998 Review Collaboration & Partnering; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Sea Urchins; Special Use Permitting
Russ, G. R. and A. C. Alcala. 1998. Natural fishing experiments in marine reserves 1983-1993: Community and trophic responses. Coral Reefs 17:383-397. 1998 Philippines Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Russ, G. R. and A. C. Alcala. 1998. Natural fishing experiments in marine reserves 1983-1993: Roles of life history and fishing intensity in family responses. Coral Reefs 17:399-416. 1998 Philippines Corallivorous Fish; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Large Herbivorous Fish; Small Herbivorous Fish
Troynikov, V. S., R. W. Day, and A. M. Leorke. 1998. Estimation of seasonal growth parameters using a stochastic Gompertz model for tagging data. Journal of Shellfish Research 17:833-838. 1998 Model Fishing Sector
Zeller, D. C. 1998. Spawning aggregations: Patterns of movement of the coral trout Plectropomus leopardus (Serranidae) as determined by ultrasonic telemetry. Marine Ecology Progress Series 162:253-263. 1998 Australia Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Foale, S. and R. Day. 1997. Stock assessment of trochus (Trochus niloticus) (Gastropoda. Trochidae) fisheries at West Nggela, Solomon Islands. Fisheries Research 33:16-Jan. 1997 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia; Solomon Islands Model Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Link, J. 1997. Untrawlable bottom in shrimp statistical zones of the northwest Gulf of Mexico. Marine Fisheries Review 59:33-36. 1997 South & Central America; Mexico Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Mcclanahan, T. R., H. Glaesel, J. Rubens, and R. Kiambo. 1997. The effects of traditional fisheries management on fisheries yields and the coral-reef ecosystems of southern Kenya. Environmental Conservation 24:105-120. 1997 Kenya Cultural Policies; Cultural Protections; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Special Use Permitting; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Paddack Michelle, J. 1997. Results of a temperate reef marine reserve study and implications for use of marine reserves in nearshore fisheries management. in Proceedings of the Conference on California and the World Ocean. 1997 Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Pickering, H. and D. Whitmarsh. 1997. Artificial reefs and fisheries exploitation: A review of the 'attraction versus production' debate, the influence of design and its significance for policy. Fisheries Research 31:39-59. 1997 Review Aquaculture; Artificial Habitat; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp
Zeller, D. C. 1997. Home range and activity patterns of the coral trout Plectropomus leopardus (Serranidae). Marine Ecology Progress Series 154:65-77. 1997 Field Study & Monitoring; Model; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Zhao, B., J. C. McGovern, and P. J. Harris. 1997. Age, growth, and temporal change in size at age of the vermilion snapper from the South Atlantic Bight. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 126:181-193. 1997 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Piscivorous Fish
Russ, G. R. and A. C. Alcala. 1996. Do marine reserves export adult fish biomass? Evidence from Apo Island, central Philippines. Marine Ecology Progress Series 132:9-Jan. 1996 Philippines Field Study & Monitoring; Model Apex Fish Predators; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Russ, G. R. and A. C. Alcala. 1996. Marine reserves: Rates and patterns of recovery and decline of large predatory fish. Ecological Applications 6:947-961. 1996 Philippines Field Study & Monitoring; Index or Indicator Apex Fish Predators; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Coffen-Smout, S. 1994. Perspectives on ocean management in Niue. Pages 227-255 Ocean yearbook. Vol. 11. 1994 Niue Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Richards, A. H., L. J. Bell, and J. D. Bell. 1994. Inshore fisheries resources of Solomon Islands. Marine Pollution Bulletin 29:90-98. 1994 Solomon Islands Aquaculture; Echinoderms; Fish; Fishing Sector; Snails & Conch; Special Use Permitting
White, A. T., L. Z. Hale, Y. Renard, and L. Cortesi. 1994. Collaborative and community-based management of coral reefs: lessons from experience. Collaborative and community-based management of coral reefs: lessons from experience. 1994 South & Central America; Florida; Thailand; Indonesia; Philippines; Caribbean Field Study & Monitoring; Index or Indicator Collaboration & Partnering; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Resource Use Management
Bres, M. 1993. The behaviour of sharks. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 3:133-159. 1993 Field Study & Monitoring Apex Fish Predators; Commercial Fisheries; Fish; Fishing Sector; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Caddy, J. F. 1993. Background concepts for a rotating harvesting strategy with particular reference to the Mediterranean red coral, Corallium rubrum. Marine Fisheries Review 55:18-Oct. 1993 Model Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Resource Use Management
Dugan, J. E. and G. E. Davis. 1993. Applications of marine refugia to coastal fisheries management. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 50:2029-2042. 1993 Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Howard, A. E. and R. S. Nunny. 1983. Effects of near-bed current speeds on the distribution and behaviour of the lobster, Homarus gammarus (L.). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 71:27-42. 1983 Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp
Medley, P. 9. ParFish - Participatory Fisheries stock assessment. Stock Assessment for Fishery Management A Framework Guide to the Stock Assessment Tools of the Fisheries Management Science Programme FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No.487. Food and Agriculture Organization. Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector

Management Options

Management Option Description Sources Database Topics
Damage Assessment, Documentation & Response: Monitor & Respond to Damages From Fishing Gear When a habitat is damaged or an injury occurs to natural resources as a result of fishing gear, it is beneficial to respond and assess. Responding appropriately is likely to involve other management options such as #91 if the injury was due to a violation. It is important to assess the damage and gather information as to why the injury occurred, so as to be able to find alternative fishing gear or practices that are less likely to cause such damages, for research such as #42. There should be protocols and methodologies for collecting damage assessment data to ensure it can be added to information systems such as #76 to track recovery, especially if repairing or restorative actions are taken. Standardized methods are also important when sharing this information with state and federal fisheries management (#64). NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Artisanal Fishing; Boating Activities; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Dredging Regulations; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Physical Damage; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Develop & Distribute Educational Materials: Establish VHF Radio Stations The local sanctuary staff should work to secure a VHF radio station dedicated to provide information about local boating and water activities in multiple languages. Broadcast messages can include, but are not limited to information about regulations, navigation, resources, weather, and reef conditions. This will help prevent boaters, divers, and fishermen from negatively affecting the ecosystem. Assessments regarding cost and target audience areas must be conducted and external funding pursued to supplement the expense. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Ballast Discharge; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Environmental Education & Outreach; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Security & Public Administration Policies; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Economic Markets & Policy: Create Alternative Livelihoods For Fishermen Many fishermen rely on their catch as their family�s main source of income. When restrictions are placed on fishing it can be to the economic detriment of these fishermen. By creating alternative means of earning income for these fishermen, social and economic goals are accomplished while decreasing pressures on natural fish populations. These alternatives often come in the form of aquaculture, which helps to still meet the demand for fish. Another common alternative is tourism; fishermen can use their knowledge and equipment such as boats to accommodate tourism and recreational fishing. All Islands Coral Reef Committee. Local Action Strategies. United States Coral Reef Task Force Accessed 6/13/2011.

Sumaila, U.R., William W. L. Cheung and Louise The. 2007. Rebuilding Hong Kong's marine fisheries: an evaluation of management options. FCRR 2007, Vol. 15(3), Fisheries Centre, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC.

Agriculture, Aquaculture, & Forestry Policies; Apex Fish Predators; Aquaculture; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Collaboration & Partnering; Commercial Fisheries; Cultural Policies; Culture; Fish; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Raw Materials; Health; Invertebrates; Large Herbivorous Fish; Social Assistance; Tourism & Recreation
Economic Markets & Policy: Regulate International Trade of Reef Species Many coral reef species are harvested internationally for a variety of markets including the aquarium trade, food, curios, jewelry and pharmaceuticals. The US is the largest importer for many of these markets. The US strictly limits extraction of stony coral and many reef species in its waters; but as a major importer and consumer of coral reef species, more actions can be taken to decrease the demand on international imports. Setting and enforcing regulations on what can be imported (such as Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species CITES) is one approach that has been taken. More information is needed, leaving room to collect trade data and assess the impacts of extraction techniques to find sustainable methods. Demand for species collected this way will be increased with greater transparency to consumers, which can be accomplished through certifications for environmentally cognoscente collectors and those using alternatives like aquaculture and coral farming. Continued participation in Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) is also beneficial. U.S. Coral Reef Task Force. 2000. International Trade in Coral and Coral Reef Species: The Role of the United States. Report of the Trade Subgroup of the International Working Group to the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force, Washington, D.C.

World Resource Institute International Marinelife Alliance, editor. 1997. Sullied Seas. WRI, Washington D.C.

U.S. Coral Reef Task Force. 2000. The National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs. Washington, D.C.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquaculture; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Collaboration & Partnering; Coral; Corporate Responses; Cultural Policies; Designate Protected Species; Economic Markets & Policies; Environmental Education & Outreach; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates; Live Collection; Manufacturing & Trade; Manufacturing & Trade Policies; Marine Products; Ornamental Jewelry & Art; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics Sources; Political Pressure; Souvenir & Decorative Trade; Sponges; Stony Coral; Toxics; Wholesale & Retail Trade
Enforcement: Enforce Statues, Regulation and Permit Requirements This option ensures compliance with statues, regulations, and permit requirements. This is accomplished through intensive on-site patrols by authorized law enforcement officers. Agencies at the state level as well as NOAA can assist with enforcement. For success, it is important that law enforcement be trained in the compliance requirements of other agencies (e.g. Marine Heritage Resource (MHR) permitting compliance). A standardized training program to help better ensure cross- deputization of enforcement agencies would be necessary. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Boating Regulations; Collaboration & Partnering; Cultural Protections; Dredging Regulations; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Permitting & Zoning; Resource Use Management; Security & Public Administration Policies; Special Use Permitting
Evaluating Fishing Gear/Method Impacts: Conduct research on the ecological impacts on sanctuary preservation areas of baiting fishing and catch-and-release fishing by trolling It is necessary to asses the ecological effects of catch�and-release fishing by trolling and bait-fishing in order to make informed decisions regarding their provisions in protected areas. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Aquaculture; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Activities; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Coral; Culture; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Food & Raw Materials; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Physical Damage; Pressures; Recreational Fishing; Reef Habitat; Reef Life; Resource Use Management; Responses; Sectors Filling Human Needs; Socio-Economic Drivers; Tourism & Recreation; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Evaluating Fishing Gear/Method Impacts: Evaluate impacts of existing fishing gear and methods on habitats Research is needed to investigate impact on habitat of commercial and recreation fishing gear and methods. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Biological Harvest; Boating Activities; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Coral; Culture; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Food & Raw Materials; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Physical Damage; Pressures; Recreational Fishing; Reef Habitat; Reef Life; Resource Use Management; Responses; Sectors Filling Human Needs; Socio-Economic Drivers; Tourism & Recreation; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Fishing & Harvesting Management: Derelict Fishing Gear & Ghost Fishing The term "ghost fishing" is used to describe the capture of marine organisms by lost or abandoned fishing gear. This is particularly a problem with gillnets, trammel nets and pots. Gear is usually lost because it becomes stuck on rough bottoms containing corals and stones, causing the buoy line to break during retrieval. Nets or pots may continue to fish for years, with captured fish and crustaceans dying and serving as attracting bait for more fish and organisms. Ghost fishing may therefore represent a serious problem in many areas, causing hidden fishing mortality over a long period of time. This management option co-insides with (#63) Respond to Natural Resource Injuries form Derelict Vessels. Cochrane, K.L., editor. 2002. A Fishery Manager's Guidebook. Management Measures and their application. Fisheries Technical Paper 424, FAO, Rome.

Seas At Risk. 2009. Moving Towards Low Impact Fisheries In Europe Policy Hurdles & Actions.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Aquaculture; Arthropods; Artificial Habitat; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Addition; Biological Harvest; Commercial Fisheries; Corallivorous Fish; Discharges; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertivorous Fish; Large Herbivorous Fish; Littering; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Debris; Piscivorous Fish; Planktivorous Fish; Provisioning Services; Recreational Fishing; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Fishing & Harvesting Management: Research Low-impact Fishing Gear & Methods Facilitating research to develop gear designs and fishing methods that minimize impacts is multifaceted. Ideal fishing gear is selective for the target species and sizes, with negligible direct or indirect impact on non-target species, sizes and habitats; but also efficient, giving quality, high catches at the lowest possible cost. Newly developed low-impact gear allows fishermen to fulfill their needs, providing food and income, while lessening the unintended environmental impact of those activities, like by-catch. Before an agency should promote new fishing gear or methods research is important to ensure there are no un-intended environmental tradeoffs. Biodegradable fishing line, modified traps, and buoy lines are examples of gear types that could be studied. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Seas At Risk. 2009. Moving Towards Low Impact Fisheries In Europe Policy Hurdles & Actions.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Boat Movement; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Improved Technology; Invasive Species; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Marine Debris; Physical Damage; Recreational Fishing; Reef Habitat; Resource Use Management; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Marine Zoning: Sanctuary Preservation Areas (SPAs) This is a type of Marine Zoning used by the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). SPAs focus on the protection of shallow, heavily used reefs where conflicts occur between user groups, and where concentrated visitor activity leads to resource degradation. They are designed to enhance the reproductive capabilities of renewable resources, protect areas critical for sustaining and protecting important marine species, and reduce user conflicts in high-use areas. This is accomplished through a prohibition of consumptive activities within these areas. They have been chosen based on the status of important habitat, the ability of a particular area to sustain and protect the habitat, the level of visitor use, and the degree of conflict between consumptive and non-consumptive users. The actual size and location of these zones have been determined by examination of user patterns, aerial photography, and ground-truthing of specific habitats. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Aquaculture; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Artisanal Fishing; Beaches & Nature Parks; Biological Addition; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Boat Movement; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Coastal Defense; Coastal Development; Coastal Engineering; Commercial Fisheries; Commercial Fishing Boats; Complex Habitat & Resources; Cruise Ships; Cultural Services; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Educational & Research Opportunities; Entertainment & Accommodation Services; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Landscape Changes; Large Ships; Live Collection; Marine Protected Areas; Oil & Gas Tankers; Ornamental Jewelry & Art; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Public Administration; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Security; Small Boats; Souvenir & Decorative Trade; Supporting Services; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Trampling; Travel Services & Tour Operators; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage; Water Resources; Water Transportation
Marine Zoning: Existing Management Areas The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) uses this zoning category to identify areas that are managed by other agencies where restrictions already exist. These zones delineate the existing jurisdictional authority of other agencies (i.e., State parks, aquatic preserves, sanctuaries, and other restricted areas). Management of these areas within the Sanctuary may require additional regulations or restrictions to adequately protect resources. Any additional management measures will be developed and implemented in coordination with the agency having jurisdictional authority. Their function is not to establish another layer of bureaucracy, but to recognize established management areas and, at a minimum, to complement the existing management programs, ensuring cooperation and coordination with other agencies. Existing Management Areas will be maintained through revising GIS and NOAA charts. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Beaches & Nature Parks; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Boating Activities; Coastal Defense; Contact Uses; Decision Support; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Entertainment & Accommodation Services; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Marine Protected Areas; Permitting & Zoning; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation; Water Transportation
Marine Zoning: Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) Wildlife Management Areas include bird nesting, resting, or feeding areas, turtle nesting beaches, and other sensitive habitats including shallow flats that are important feeding areas for fish. These areas seek to provide protection for endangered/threatened species or their habitats while at the same time providing opportunity for public use. Wildlife Management Areas are achieved through placing and maintaining buoys along zone boundaries; implementing management responsibilities; adjusting existing zone boundaries if needed; evaluating allowable activities within the boundaries and make changes if needed; identifying potential areas that need additional zoning; monitoring the effectiveness of current zones; and revising GIS and NOAA charts. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Beaches & Nature Parks; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Boating Activities; Coastal Defense; Contact Uses; Cultural Services; Decision Support; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Entertainment & Accommodation Services; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Landscape Conservation & Restoration; Marine Birds; Marine Protected Areas; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Sea Turtles; Tourism & Recreation; Trampling; Water Transportation; Wetlands
Marine Zoning: Ecological Reserves (ERs) Ecological Reserves set aside areas with minimal human interference. These reserves aim to enhance and protect biodiversity through encompassing large, contiguous habitats. The goal of ecological reserves is to encourage spawning, nurseries, and residence areas that contribute to genetic protection of fish and marine life. Ecological Reserves can be achieved through a variety of methods such as: placing/maintaining buoys along zone boundaries; adjusting boundaries if necessary; evaluating allowable activities within zone boundaries; identifying potential areas that need additional zoning; reviewing the effectiveness of the zoning; and revising NOAA and GIS charts. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Biochemical & Genetic Resources; Biological Addition; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Coastal Defense; Commercial Fishing Boats; Complex Habitat & Resources; Cruise Ships; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Large Ships; Live Collection; Marine Protected Areas; Oil & Gas Tankers; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Provisioning Services; Resource Use Management; Security Policies; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation; Trampling; Water Transportation
Monitor & Research: Survey and Collect Anecdotal Information Anecdotal information is to be solicited from experts and amateur public participation through surveys and workshops. Persons of interest include fishermen, recreational divers, recreational dive facilities, salvors and other locals with knowledge of marine resources in the area. Information they provide can help identify marine cultural and natural resources and help update resource inventory. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Boating Regulations; Coastal Engineering; Collaboration & Partnering; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Cultural Policies; Cultural Protections; Cultural Services; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Educational & Research Opportunities; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Marine Products; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Provisioning Services; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Responses; Security & Public Administration Policies; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Valuation; Water Transportation
Monitor & Research: Fisheries Sampling Improved fisheries sampling programs require improving the spatial resolution of commercial and recreation fisheries-dependent and fisheries-independent sampling programs to provide statistics on catch and effort. Improved sampling can be achieved through evaluating and enhancing census programs by using smaller sampling areas. Also, fishery pre-recruitment monitoring efforts should be continued for long-term prediction of fishery stocks. Last, investigating life histories of fishery species needs to be conducted because it is currently a gap. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Apex Fish Predators; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Corallivorous Fish; Decision Support; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertivorous Fish; Large Herbivorous Fish; Piscivorous Fish; Planktivorous Fish; Provisioning Services; Reef Inhabitants; Reef Life; Security & Public Administration Policies; Small Herbivorous Fish
Public Participation: Assist Seafood Watch Assist Seafood Watch and other sustainable seafood consumption initiatives, in their efforts to educate the public and promote sustainable seafood. The Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL) the Tour Opperators' Iniative (TOI) and The Center for Environmental Leadership in Business (CELB). 2003. A Practical Guide to Good Practice: Managing Environmental Impacts In The Marine Recreation Sector.

SeafoodWatch. 2005. Sustainable Seafood Business Practices. Monteray Bay.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Aquaculture; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Collaboration & Partnering; Commercial Fisheries; Corallivorous Fish; Environmental Education & Outreach; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Food & Raw Materials; Invertebrate Harvest; Large Herbivorous Fish; Live Collection; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Molluscs; Provisioning Services; Recreational Fishing; Sectors Filling Human Needs
Regulatory Review and Development: Consider Regulations for Catch & Release Trolling This plan seeks to reduce or eliminate catch-and-release fishing in many fragile areas. First an assessment must be conducted to measure the effects of catch-and -release trolling. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Contact Uses; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Scientific Research; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Regulatory Review and Development: Develop Mobile Source Discharge Controls Pollution discharge controls regulate where different types of discharges are allowed and what acceptable quantities released are. Typically discharge controls target point sources in the form of effluent pipes (#280), but discharges also occur from mobile sources such as boats and ships. There may need to be revisions on where depositing fish, fish parts, bait, cooling water, engine exhaust, deck wash, and effluent can be released. In many areas, these items are often excluded as prohibited, and they should possibly be included. Pollution discharge controls are different from Water Quality Standards (#22) which set acceptable environmental limits and leave it up to the manager to meet those criteria. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Artisanal Fishing; Ballast Discharge; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Chemical Variables; Coastal Engineering; Commercial Fisheries; Commercial Fishing Boats; Cruise Ships; Discharge Limitations; Discharges; Docks & Marinas; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Large Ships; Littering; Oil & Gas Tankers; Physical Damage; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Point Source Discharges; Ports & Harbors; Recreational Fishing; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation; Wastewater Discharge; Water Transportation; Waterborne Discharges
Regulatory Review and Development: Ensure Consistency Among Fishing Regulations Consistency will improve administrative and regulatory coordination between fisheries regulatory agencies. This involves using a protocol for drafting and revising fisheries regulations in order to implement a consistent set of regulations throughout the protected reef area. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Biological Harvest; Collaboration & Partnering; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Food & Raw Materials; Public Administration; Resource Use Management; Security; Security & Public Administration Policies; Security Policies
Regulatory Review and Development: Evaluate Bait Fishing and/or Catch & Release Trolling Regulations This option seeks to reduce or eliminate bait fishing, and catch & release trolling in fragile areas. First assessments must be conducted to measure the effects of bait fishing and catch & release trolling. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Contact Uses; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Scientific Research; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Regulatory Review and Development: Evaluate Fishing Gear/Fishing Methods Regulations In most regions there are already regulations that prohibit fishing methods that incorporate explosives, poisons, oil, and bleach. Further investigation may reveal additional methods, materials, or gear that should be prohibited as well. Regulations should aim to increase the use of low-impact gear (#194) in place of more destructive gear and methods. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Cochrane, K.L., editor. 2002. A Fishery Manager's Guidebook. Management Measures and their application. Fisheries Technical Paper 424, FAO, Rome.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Biological Harvest; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Decision Support; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Physical Damage; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Security & Public Administration Policies; Toxics; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Regulatory Review and Development: Evaluate Spearfishing Regulations Spearfishing is already prohibited in ecological reserves, sanctuary preservation areas, management areas, and special-use areas. There are additional considerations to be made to see if restrictions need to be extended in high priority areas. There may also be need to be further scientific study on the impacts of spearfishing. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Cochrane, K.L., editor. 2002. A Fishery Manager's Guidebook. Management Measures and their application. Fisheries Technical Paper 424, FAO, Rome.

Seas At Risk. 2009. Moving Towards Low Impact Fisheries In Europe Policy Hurdles & Actions.

Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Contact Uses; Cultural Services; Culture; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Raw Materials; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Sectors Filling Human Needs; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Regulatory Review and Development: Evaluate Fish Feeding Regulations Divers in FL are already prohibited from fish feeding. Further review may show a need to prohibited anyone in state water from feeding fish. There will need to be investigations on the biological and behavioral impacts of fish feeding. This investigation can be used to keep the status quo, or may encourage further regulations. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Biological Addition; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Contact Uses; Cultural Policies; Cultural Services; Culture; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Education & Information; Educational & Research Opportunities; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Recreational Fishing; Scientific Research; Supplemental Feeding; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Resource Use Management: Develop Regulations for Sponge Fisheries Sponges play a vital role on reefs, providing structure, food and filtration. Depending on the method of removal, this process can be very destructive to other reef fauna and habitat. Research is needed to compare impacts of different sponge fishing methods in different areas. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Biochemical & Genetic Resources; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boring Sponges; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Culture; Cyanobacteria; Educational & Research Opportunities; Encrusting Sponges; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Marine Products; Microorganisms; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics Sources; Physical Damage; Resource Use Management; Scientific Research; Sponges; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage; Tube, Barrel, & Finger Sponges
Resource Use Management: Develop Live Collection Regulations Live collection is often more destructive than capture of food fishes because of the destructive methods used to remove live fish and invertebrates from the reef habitat. These methods include use of cyanide and explosives. Current methods should be assessed and alternatives should be developed or collection prohibited. World Resource Institute International Marinelife Alliance, editor. 1997. Sullied Seas. WRI, Washington D.C.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Biochemical & Genetic Resources; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Educational & Research Opportunities; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Marine Products; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics Sources; Physical Damage; Resource Use Management; Scientific Research; Sponges; Toxics; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage; Wholesale & Retail Trade
Resource Use Management: Fisheries Catch Quotas Quotas designate the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) allocated to an operating unit such as a country, a vessel, a company or an individual fisherman (individual quota) depending on the system of allocation. Quotas may or may not be transferable, inheritable, and tradable. While generally used to allocate total allowable catch, quotas could be used also to allocate fishing effort or biomass. Seas At Risk. 2009. Moving Towards Low Impact Fisheries In Europe Policy Hurdles & Actions.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Apex Fish Predators; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Bivalves; Boat Movement; Boating Activities; Commercial Fisheries; Commercial Fishing Boats; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Raw Materials; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertivorous Fish; Large Herbivorous Fish; Live Collection; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Products; Molluscs; Octopus & Squid; Piscivorous Fish; Planktivorous Fish; Provisioning Services; Recreational Fishing; Snails & Conch; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Resource Use Management: Fisheries Management Enforcement Marine protected areas and other types of coastal zone management areas have fisheries management policies that must be enforced in addition to the broader Statues, Regulation and Permit Requirements (#91). Illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing is a major problem worldwide. Management area policies must be enforced to have an impact on the fisheries stock. Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Commercial Fisheries; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Marine Protected Areas; Mitigation; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Public Administration; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Security Policies; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Resource Use Management: Seasonal Fisheries and Harvesting Finfish and shellfish stocks may be more or less susceptible to fishing pressures during certain times of the year. This may be due to seasonality of recruitment and/or changes in food/predation pressures. If fishing restrictions may be more successful if this seasonality is taken into consideration and fishing pressure adjusted accordingly. Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Artisanal Fishing; Biochemical & Genetic Resources; Biological Harvest; Bivalves; Commercial Fisheries; Corallivorous Fish; Decision Support; Echinoderms; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertivorous Fish; Large Herbivorous Fish; Live Collection; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Products; Molluscs; Octopus & Squid; Permitting & Zoning; Piscivorous Fish; Planktivorous Fish; Provisioning Services; Recreational Fishing; Small Herbivorous Fish; Snails & Conch; Sponges; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Restoration: Removal of Invasive Algae Benthic organisms on reefs maintain a delicate balance competing for space. In many areas, the competition between coral and algae has fallen out of balance due to confounding factors. Factors such as decreased herbivorous fish and invertebrates, and invasive algae species have allowed faster growing algae to take over many reefs, often growing into smothering mats that cover and kill coral. In Hawaii, there has been some success physically removing invasive algae such as Kappaphycus using underwater vacuums extended down from barges or volunteer events in shallower areas. The Nature Conservancy. 2010.Two Million Pounds of Invasive Algae Removed From Maunalua Bay.

(not cited)

Algae; Aquaculture; Biological Addition; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Calcareous Macroalgae; Collaboration & Partnering; Coral; Coralline Algae; Decision Support; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Escape & Release of Non-natives; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Fleshy Macroalgae; Hydrocoral; Invasive Species; Large Herbivorous Fish; Octocoral; Reef Habitat; Skeletal Coral; Small Herbivorous Fish; Stony Coral; Turf Algae; Wetland & Reef Restoration; Zooxanthellae

Laws

Legal Citation Purpose of Law Management Organization Database Topics
Amendment to the U.S. Caribbean Fishery Management Plans, Code of Federal Regulations § 600 and 622. NMFS issues this final rule to implement a comprehensive amendment prepared by the Caribbean Fishery Management Council (Council) to amend its Reef Fish, Spiny Lobster, Queen Conch, and Coral Fishery Management Plans (FMPs). The comprehensive amendment is designed to ensure the FMPs are fully compliant with the provisions of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (Magnuson-Stevens Act). This final rule redefines the fishery management units for the FMPs; establishes seasonal closures; imposes gear restrictions and requirements; revises requirements for marking pots and traps; and prohibits the filleting of fish at sea. In addition, the comprehensive amendment establishes biological reference points and stock status criteria; establishes rebuilding schedules and strategies to end overfishing and rebuild overfished stocks; provides for standardized collection of bycatch data; minimizes bycatch and bycatch mortality to the extent practicable; designates essential fish habitat (EFH) and EFH habitat areas of particular concern (HAPCs); and minimizes adverse impacts on such habitat to the extent practicable. The intended effect of this final rule is to achieve optimum yield in the fisheries and provide social and economic benefits associated with maintaining healthy stocks.

Application to Coral Reefs:Protects coral reefs in the USVI and Puerto Rico from overfishing reef resources, specifically reef fish, lobster, and queen conch taking. It establishs seasonal closures, restrictions on the gear used, lists areas of specific biological reference points, and has a schedule and strategy for restocking fishery resources.

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Marine Fisheries Service

Jurisdiction:
US Virgin Islands; Puerto Rico 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Commercial Fisheries; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates; Recreational Fishing; Reef Inhabitants
Anadromous Fish Conservation Act of 1965, as amended, 16 United States Code § 757. The Act is intended to conserve anadromous fish. It authorizes the Secretatries of Interior and Commerce to enter into cooperatve agreements with states and other non-federal interests for conservation, development and enhancement of anadromous fish and contribute up to fifty percent as the federal share of the cost of carrying out such agreements. Reclamation construction projects for water resource projects needed solely for such fish are also authorized.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:Projects are for conservation, development, and enhancement on fisheries.

Comments: 		Department of Interior/Department of Commerce

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Apex Fish Predators; Biocriteria; Collaboration & Partnering; Designate Protected Species; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Public Administration; Resource Use Management
Chapter 2: Protection of indigenous, endangered and threatened fish, wildlife and plants, 12 Virgin Islands Code. Regulates activities, including scientific research, that could affect indigenous species and species considered at risk (threatened) or endangered, establishes species of special concern and habitats that should be protected, requires permits for trimming mangroves

Application to Coral Reefs:It is illegal to take or posses "live rock" which is defined as dead or live coral. It is illegaal to cut all three species of mangrove trees. Forbidding the takeing of coral directly protects coral species. Not cutting mangraoves will aid in sediment control and the removal of nutrients that could enter coral reef areas. The Commission can designate habitats for listed threatened or endangered species.

Legislative Actions:It is illegal to take or posses "live rock" which is defined as dead or live coral. It is illegaal to cut all three species of mangrove trees. Forbidding the takeing of coral directly protects coral species. Not cutting mangraoves will aid in sediment control and the removal of nutrients that could enter coral reef areas. The Commission can designate habitats for listed threatened or endangered species.

Comments: 		US Virgin Islands, Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Protection

Jurisdiction:
US Virgin Islands 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Coral; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Mangroves; Ornamental Jewelry & Art; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, 16 United States Code §§ 1451-1456. Preserve, protect, develop, and where possible, to restore or enhance the resources of the Nation's coastal zone for this and succeeding generations.

Application to Coral Reefs:Protection of coastal areas can have an indirect influence on coral reef preservation and conservation by the use of environmentally sound construction and development by limiting runoff of contaminants and sediment that could have an adverse effect on inshore coral reefs if present.

Legislative Actions:In addition, the Act authorized a national system of estuarine sanctuaries and the establishment of national field laboratories with a 50/50 cost-sharing grants with coastal states.

Comments: 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/US Fish and Wildlife Service

Jurisdiction:
United States; State Coastal Waters 		City Planning; Coastal Development; Collaboration & Partnering; Construction Codes & Projects; Corporate Responses; Designated Uses; Economic Markets & Policies; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Funding & Incentives; Hydrologic Management; Landscape Changes; Landuse Management; Marine Debris; Marine Protected Areas; Non-point Source Controls; Nutrients; Permitting & Zoning; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Resource Use Management; Sediment; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation Policies; Waste Management Policies; Waterborne Discharges; Wetlands
Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000, 16 United States Code § 6401 (2000). To preserve, sustain, and restore the condition of coral reef ecosystems, to promote the wise management and sustainable use of coral reef ecosystems, to benefit local communities and the Nation, to develop sound scientific information on the condition of coral reef ecosystems and threats to the ecosystems, to assist in the preservation of coral reefs by supporting and financing conservation programs including local and non-governmental programs, establish a formal mechanism for collecting and allocating monetary donations from the private sector to be used for coral reef conservation projects

Application to Coral Reefs:Allowed the development of programs and projects, and provided financing for developing sound scientific data to preserve and restore coral reefs. Continued the Coral Reef Task Force and Coral Reef Initiative started under Executive Order 13089 (1998).

Legislative Actions:Provided funding for matching grants, encouraged education and outreach, encouaged cooperative conservation and management through partnerships with other federal, state, regional and local partners including citizen groups.

Comments:The Act is administrative, not regulatory. It established four major programs; (1) The National Coral Reef Action Strategy established goals for research, monitoring and conservation, (2, 3) The Coral Reef Conservation Program and Coral Reef Conservation Fund provided financial assistance for coral reef projects, (4) the National Program facilitated cooperative work between federal, state and regional efforts that work to improve coral reef ecosystems. The National Program also enhanced the public awareness of coral reefs through educational programs. The Act incorporated Executive Order 13,089 and provided coordinated funding activities through twelve federal agencies and seven states. 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Jurisdiction:
United States; US Coral Reefs 		Biocriteria; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Corporate Responses; Education & Information; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Food & Raw Materials; Funding & Incentives; Marine Debris; Marine Protected Areas; Microorganisms; Public Administration; Remediation; Utilities
Endangered and Threatened Species; Critical Habitat for Threatened Elkhorn and Staghorn Corals, 73 Federal Register § 6895 (2008). To make it unlawful, to import or export the species into or from the US, to take the species within the US or territorial seas of the US, to take the species upon the high seas, to possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship by any means whatsoever the species taken in violation, to deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship in interstate or foreign commerce, by any means whatsoever and in the course of a commercial activity the species, to sell or offer for sale in interstate or foreign commerce the species, to violate any regulation pertaining to the species.

Application to Coral Reefs:The deignation of Acropa palmeta and Acropa cervicornis as threathened species will allow the species advantages in recovery. The designation protects the reef habitat because the species must have the reef to reproduce and grow.

Legislative Actions:Section 11 of the ESA provides civil and criminal penalties for a violation of the ESA.

Comments: 		NOAA

Jurisdiction:
US Coral Reefs; US Territorial Waters; US Virgin Islands; Puerto Rico 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Collaboration & Partnering; Environmental Education & Outreach; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Recreational Opportunities; Skeletal Coral; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Endangered and Threatened Species; Critical Habitat for Threatened Elkhorn and Staghorn Corals; Final Rule, 73 Federal Register § 72210. We, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), issue a final rule designating critical habitat for elkhorn (Acropora palmata) and staghorn (A. cervicornis) corals, which we listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (ESA), on May 9, 2006. Four specific areas are designated: the Florida area, which comprises approximately 1,329 square miles (3,442 sq km) of marine habitat; the Puerto Rico area, which comprises approximately 1,383 square miles (3,582 sq km) of marine habitat; the St. John/St. Thomas area, which comprises approximately 121 square miles (313 sq km) of marine habitat; and the St. Croix area, which comprises approximately 126 square miles (326 sq km) of marine habitat. We are excluding one military site, comprising approximately 5.5 square miles (14.3 sq km), because of national security impacts.

Application to Coral Reefs:The law protects coral habitat for elkhorn and staghorn coral which strenghtens their protection in the FKNMS, Puerto Rico, and US Virgin Islands.

Legislative Actions:

Comments:the National Marine
Fisheries Service (NMFS), issue a final
rule designating critical habitat for
elkhorn (Acropora palmata) and
staghorn (A. cervicornis) corals, which
we listed as threatened under the
Endangered Species Act of 1973, as
amended (ESA), on May 9, 2006. Four
specific areas are designated: the Florida
area, which comprises approximately
1,329 square miles (3,442 sq km) of
marine habitat; the Puerto Rico area,
which comprises approximately 1,383
square miles (3,582 sq km) of marine
habitat; the St. John/St. Thomas area,
which comprises approximately 121
square miles (313 sq km) of marine
habitat; and the St. Croix area, which
comprises approximately 126 square
miles (326 sq km) of marine habitat. We
are excluding one military site,
comprising approximately 5.5 square
miles (14.3 sq km), because of national
security impacts. 		National Marine Fisheries Service

Jurisdiction:
US Coral Reefs; US Territorial Waters; US Territories; US State Waters; Designated Marine Areas; US Virgin Islands 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Collaboration & Partnering; Commercial Fisheries; Commercial Fishing Boats; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Endangered Species Act of 1973, 16 United States Code §§ 1531-1544, 1361-1407. To protect animal and plant species currently in danger of extinction (endangered) and those that may become endangered in the foreseeable future (threatened). Authorized the determination and listing of species as endangered and threatened; Prohibited unauthorized taking, possession, sale, and transport of endangered species; Provided authority to acquire land for the conservation of listed species, using land and water conservation funds; Authorized establishment of cooperative agreements and grants-in-aid to states that establish and maintain active and adequate programs for endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; Authorized the assessment of civil and criminal penalties for violating the act or regulations; and Authorized the payment of rewards to anyone furnishing information leading to arrest and conviction for any violation of the act.

Application to Coral Reefs:Two species of coral are listed as threatened; elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) and staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis). They were placed on the list in 2006.Their habitat was listed as "critical habitat" in 2008.

Legislative Actions:The Act provided for criminal and civil penalties dependent on the sections of the Act under which violations occured. Criminal penalties may be imposed up to a maximum of $50,000 and not more than one year in prison. Civil penalties may be imposed up to a maximum of $25,000. The Act provided for rewards to citizens that report violations leading to sucessful prosecution. The rewards are paid from the fine received.

Comments:Listed species and critical habitats can be found in the Federal Register. The habitats for staghohn (73FR72210) and elkhorn (73FR72210) corals were declared critical in 2008. Since the entire coral reef is habitat for the species, critical designation could offer a method of protecting and conserving the reef. In this instance, by protecting individual species and their habitat, the entire reef is protected. 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration /National Marine Fisheries Service/USFish and Wildlife Service (consultations with all federal agncies responsible for section 7(a)(1) compliance

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Coral; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Public Administration; Resource Use Management
Estuaries and Clean Waters Act of 2000, 33 United States Code §§ 2901 et seq. Creates a federal interagency council that includes the Director of the Fish and Wildlife Service, the Secretary of Army for Civil Works, the Secretary of Agriculture, the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The council is charged with developing a national estuary habitat restoration strategy and providing grants to entities to restore and protect estuary habitat to promote the strategy.

Application to Coral Reefs:Protecting water quality in estuaries will help mitigate the impacts of water pollution which inturn would help mitigate ocean acidification.

Legislative Actions:The Act authorized the formation of the Estuary Habitat Restoration Council that was responsible for developing a National Habitat Restoration Strategy.

Comments: 		US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Army Corps of Engineers, Department of Agriculture, US Environmental Protection Agency, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Ballast Discharge; Building & Home Construction; Collaboration & Partnering; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Forestry; Funding & Donations; Mangroves; Marine Birds; Mining; Non-point Source Runoff; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Nutrients; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Sediment; Sewage Treatment; Solid Waste Disposal; Waste Management; Waste Management Policies; Wastewater Discharge
Exec. Order No. 12962, Recreational Fisheries, 60 Federal Register (1995). Federal agencies are directed to improve the quantity, function, sustainable productivity, and distribution of U.S. aquatic resources for increased recreational fishing opportunities in cooperation with states and tribes.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		Federal agencies

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Environmental Education & Outreach; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Funding & Donations; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Exec. Order No. 13089, Coral Reef Protection, 63 Federal Register 32701 (1998). Protect coral reefs. Established the US Coral Reef Task Force

Application to Coral Reefs:The Task Force was assigned duties including developing and implementing research, in conjunction with the scientific community, to identify the major causes of coral reef degradation.

Legislative Actions:No penalties for noncompliance.

Comments: 		12 federal agencies, 7 states and territories, 3 freely associated states

Jurisdiction:
United States; US Territorial Waters; US Territories; US Virgin Islands; Puerto Rico 		Boating Regulations; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Hydrologic Management; Public Administration; Recreational Opportunities; Reef Life; Resource Use Management; Sectors Filling Human Needs; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Exec. Order No. 13158, Marine Protected Areas, 65 Federal Register 34909 (2000). This Executive Order is meant to help protect the significant natural and cultural resources within the marine environment for the benefit of present and future generations by strengthening and expanding the Nation�s system of marine protected areas.

Application to Coral Reefs:Benefits to coral reefs within MPA's.

Legislative Actions:One of the provisions of the Act requires that the Secretary develop a scientifically based, comprehensive system of MPA's representing diverse US marine ecosystems, and the Nation's natural and cultural resources.

Comments: 		Department of Interior, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Biocriteria; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Collaboration & Partnering; Complex Habitat & Resources; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956, as amended, 16 United States Code § 742. Established a comprehensive national fish, shellfish, and wildlife resources policy with emphasis on commercial fishing industry but also with a direction to administer the Act with regard to the inherent right of every citizen and resident to fish for pleasure, enjoyment, and betterment and to maintain and increase public opportunities for recreational use of fish and wildlife.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:

Comments:The 1998 amendments promoted voluteer programs and community partnerships for the benefit of national wildlife refuges. 		US Fish and Wildlife Service

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Bivalves; Commercial Fisheries; Designate Protected Species; Economic Markets & Policies; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Funding & Donations; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Snails & Conch; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act of 1980, 16 United States Code §§ 2901-2911. Required the Service to monitor non-game bird and fish species, identify species of management concerns, and implement conservation measures to preclude the need for listing under the Endangered Species Act.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		US Fish and Wildlife Service

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Designate Protected Species; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Funding & Incentives; Marine Birds; Marine Protected Areas; Public Administration; Resource Use Management
Fish and Wildlife Service Act of 1956, 16 United States Code § 742. Establishes a comprehensive national fish, shellfish, and wildlife resources policy with emphasis on the commercial fishing industry but also includes the inherent right of every citizen and resident to fish for pleasure, enjoyment, and betterment, and to maintain and increase public opportunities for recreational use of fish and wildlife resources. Among other things, it authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to take such steps as may be required for the development, advancement, management, conservation, and protection of fish and wildlife resources, including, but not limited to, research, development of existing facilities, and acquisition by purchase or exchange of land and water or interests therein.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:The Act is written for the support of commercial and recreational fisherpersons so that they enjoy the benefits of the Nation's fishery resources.

Comments: 		US Fish and Wildlife Service

Jurisdiction:
 Commercial Fisheries; Designate Protected Species; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Public Administration; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Regulations, Federal Register § Volume 66, Number 11 (2001). NOAA established the Tortugas Ecological Reserve (a no-take zone) in the Tortugas region (Tortugas or region) of the Florida Keys to protect significant coral resources and to protect an area that serves as a source of biodiversity for the Sanctuary as well as for the southwest shelf of Florida. Establishment of the Reserve included expansion of the Sanctuary boundary to ensure that the Reserve protects sensitive coral habitats lying outside the existing boundary of the Sanctuary.

Application to Coral Reefs:The Regulation protects significant coral resources and many marine species by providing a no-take zone.

Legislative Actions:The regulation increased the no-take zones to 24 areas. Fishing is prohibited in Tortugas north for areas that are within State waters. Diving is prohibited in Tortugas south.

Comments: 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Jurisdiction:
US State Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Biological Harvest; Bivalves; Boating Activities; Commercial Fisheries; Coral; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Education & Outreach; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Protected Areas; Molluscs; Octopus & Squid; Recreational Fishing; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Sea Urchins; Seastars; Snails & Conch; Sponges; Stony Coral; Tourism & Recreation; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Regulations; Final Rule, Code of Federal Regulations § Parts 922, 929, 937 (1997). NOAA developed the comprehensive Final Management Plan for the FKNMS and issued the Plan on January 30, 1997. Congress and the Governer of Florida were provided a 45-day period to provide certification of unacceptable regulations that needed amendments. NOAA incorporated the certified changes provided and issued the final regulations and management plan for the Sanctuary that went into effect with the publication of the final rule, including waters within the State of Florida in the Sanctuary.

Application to Coral Reefs:The Sanctuary sets aside the coral reef system that is the third largest barrier coral reef in the world. Included in the FKNMS are the Key Largo Marine Sanctuary containing 103 square nautical miles of coral reefs and Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary containing 5.32 square nautical miles of coral reefs. The Act protects the reefs from anchoring directly into the coral formation and taking coral dead or alive. The Act protects mangrove islands and submerged aquatic vegetation, both potential buffers for the reef system against eutrophication and sediment deposition. The Act prohibits oil and hydrocarbon exploration, mining or altering the seabed, restricts large shipping traffic, and restricts the discharge of pollutants, further protecting coral, mangroves, and submerged aquatic vegetation.

Legislative Actions:The Act requires the preparation of a comprehensive management plan and implementing regulations to protect Sanctuary resources.

Comments:The final rule codifies the Act and further defines boundaries of the Sanctuary as well as providing a list of species protected in the Sanctuary. 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric and Administration

Jurisdiction:
US Coral Reefs; US Territorial Waters; State Coastal Waters; US State Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Ballast Discharge; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Regulations; Collaboration & Partnering; Commercial Fishing Boats; Cruise Ships; Cultural Protections; Designate Protected Species; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates; Large Ships; Live Collection; Mangroves; Marine Debris; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Oil & Gas Tankers; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Reef Inhabitants; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Sediment; Shoreline Protection; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation Policies; Waste Management Policies; Wetlands
Lacey Act, 16 United States Code §§ 3372 et seq. The Act provides that it is unlawful for any person to import, export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase any fish or wildlifeor plant taken, possessed, transported, or sold in violation of any law, treaty, or regulation of the United States or in violation of any Indian tribal law whether in interstate or foreign commerce.

Application to Coral Reefs:The Act makes possession, selling, transporting, importing, exporting, receiving, acquiring, and purchasing illegal under specific cases. Corals would be included.

Legislative Actions:Civil Penalties up to $10,000 per each violation or maximum criminal sanctions of $20,000 in fines and/or up to five years imprisonment. All plants and animals taken in violation of the Act are subject to forfeiture as well as all vessels, vehicles, aircraft, and other equipment used to aid in the importing, exporting, transporting, selling, receiving, acquiring, or purchasing of fish and wildlife or plants in a criminal violation for which a felony conviction is obtained where the owner should have known of the illegal transgression.

Comments: 		US Department of Agriculture/Us Border Patrol

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Aquarium Stock; Coral; Improved Technology; Ornamental Jewelry & Art; Political Pressure; Resource Use Management; Transportation Policies; Wholesale & Retail Trade
Magnuson-Stevens Fisheries Conservation and Management Act of 1976, as amended through 1996,. Provided for conservation and management of commercial and recreational fisheries in the US Exclusive Economic Zone (3-200 nautical miles offshore).

Application to Coral Reefs:The Act recognized, and stated, that one of the greatest long-term threats to viable commercial and recreational fisheries is the continued loss of marine, esturaine, and other aquatic habitats, and that habitat considerations should receive increased attention for the conservation and management of fishery resources.

Legislative Actions:The amended Act through 1996 created eight regional Fishery Management Councils and reguired foreign vessels to apply for permits to fish in US waters. The Councils develop Management plans for every fishery within their geographic region regarding guidelines for quota, bycatch caps and gear restrictions..

Comments: 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Marine Fisheries Service

Jurisdiction:
 Biocriteria; Economic Markets & Policies; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Political Pressure; Resource Use Management; Responses
Magnuson-Stevens Fisheries Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act as amended through January 2007, Statutes at Large §§ 94-265. National program for the conservation and management of fishery resources of the US to prevent overfishing, to rebuild overfished stocks, to facilitate the long-term protection of essential fish habitat, and to realize the full potential of the Nation's fishery resources.

Application to Coral Reefs:Promote the protection of essential fish habitat in the review of projects conducted under federal permits, licenses, or other authorities that effct or have the potential to affect such habitats. The amendments of 2006 specifically require the protection of deep sea coral habitats.

Legislative Actions:Requires government observers on board a certain number of fishing vessels. The Act provides for criminal and civil penalties dependent on the sections of the Act under which violations occured. Criminal penalties may be imposed up to a maximum of $50,000 and not more than one year in prison. Civil penalties may be imposed including seizure, forfeiture, and condemnation of property.

Comments: 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Marine Fisheries Service

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Apex Fish Predators; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Commercial Fisheries; Commercial Fishing Boats; Complex Habitat & Resources; Economic Markets & Policies; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas
Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, 16 United States Code § 1361. With certain exceptions, the Act establishes a mortiorium on the taking and importation of marine mammals, as well as products that are made from them. DOI is responsible for sea otter, walrus, polar bear, diugong and manatee. The DOC is responsible for Cretaceans and piniped other than the walrus.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:The legislation mandated the use of an ecosystem-based management approach to marine resource management. The Marine Mammal Commission was established and has specific advisory and research duties. Required that government observers aboard some fishing vessels.

Comments:The Act covers all species of marine mammals and plants, including anadromous fish, except for marine ammmals, birds, and highly migratory species, all of which are covered under other laws or treaties. 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Marine Fisheries Service

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Designate Protected Species; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Reef Inhabitants; Reef Life; Resource Use Management; Whales & Dolphins
Marine Mammals, 50 Code of Federal Regulations. The regulations prohibit the capture of marine mammals on land or sea in US waters and prohibits the improtation of any marine mammal product to the US (CFR 216.11-216.12) unless the person has a permit for scientific purposes (CFR 216.33-216.37).

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Oceanic Aatmospheric Administration/National Marine Fisheries Service

Jurisdiction:
US Federal Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Commercial Fisheries; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Political Pressure; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Whales & Dolphins
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972, 33 United States Code § 1401. To regulate the dumping of all types of materials into ocean waters and to prevent or strictly limit the dumping into ocean waters of any material which would adversely affect human health, welfare, or amenities, or the marine environment, ecological systems, or economic potentialities. To regulate (1) the transportation by any person of material from the United States and, in the case of United States vessels, aircraft, or agencies, the transportation of material from a location outside the United States, when in either case the transportation is for the purpose of dumping the material into ocean waters, and (2) the dumping of material transported by any person from a location outside the United States, if the dumping occurs in the territorial sea or the contiguous zone of the United States.

Application to Coral Reefs:The Act has been historically used to regulate dumping of dredged materials and sewage sludge into the marine environment. The law intends to improve the conservation, understanding, management, and wise and sustainable use of marine resources, enhance public awareness, understanding, and appreciation of the marine environment, and to maintain for future generations the habitat, and ecologigal services, of the natural assemblage of living resources that inhabit those areas. Because permits are required, it can be assumed that dumping would not be allowed if the material would be dispersed into a sensitive habitat such as coral reefs.

Legislative Actions:EPA may assess an administrative civil penalty up to $50,000 per person. Higher penalties can be assessed for dumping medical waste (up to $125,000). Each day in violation constitutes a separate offense. Continuing violations can suffer criminal penalties with fines and up to five years imprisionment possible.

Comments:The Act has played a major role in regulating the disposal of dredged material into the ocean environment. However, medical and radioactive wastes, industrial wastes, as well as sewage sludge, are also regulated in the law. 		United States Environmntal Protection Agency

Jurisdiction:
US Territorial Waters; US Federal Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Ballast Discharge; Biocriteria; Boating Regulations; Complex Habitat & Resources; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Mangroves; Marine Debris; Marine Protected Areas; Microorganisms; Non-point Source Controls; Oil & Gas Research & Exploration; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Political Pressure; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Sediment; Sewage Treatment; Solid Waste Disposal; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation Policies; Waste Management Policies; Wastewater Discharge
Marine Turtle Conservation Act of 2004, 16 United States Code § 6601. The law was created to aid in the conservation of sea turtles and their nesting habitats in foreign countries by providing funds for the conservation of nesting areas, sea turtles in in their nesting habitats, and dealing with threats to sea turtle survival.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration/National Marine Fisheries Service/US Fish and Wildlife Service

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Building & Home Construction; Coastal Development; Coastal Engineering; Designate Protected Species; Docks & Marinas; Educational & Research Opportunities; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Funding & Incentives; Ports & Harbors; Resource Use Management; Sea Turtles
Migratory Bird Treaty Act, 16 United States Code § 715. The Act established a Federal prohibition, unless permitted by regulations, to pursue, hunt, take, capture, kill, attempt to take, capture or kill, possess, offer for sale, sell, offer to purchase, purchase, deliver for shipment, ship, caused to be shipped, deliver for transport, carry, or cause to be carried by any means whatever, receive for shipment, transport or carriage, or export, at any time,or in any manner, any migratory bird, included in the terms of this Convention�for the protection of migratory birds�or any part, nest, or egg of such a bird.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:Recent amendments to the Act increased the fine for misdemeanor convictions from $5000 to $15,000.

Comments: 		US Fish and Wildlife Service

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Designate Protected Species; Marine Birds; Resource Use Management
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 42 United States Code §§ 4321-4377. Requires analysis, public comment, and reporting for environmental impacts of federal actions. It stipulates the factors to be considered in environmental impact statements, and requires that federal agencies employ an interdisciplinary approach in related decision-making and develop means to ensure unqualified environmental values are given appropriate consideration, along with economic and technical considerations.

Application to Coral Reefs:Requires an Environmental Assessment(EA), and potentially an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) if the project review finds there will be a significant impact. The EIS must detail the environmental impacts of the proposed action, unavoidable adverse environmental impacts, and alternatives to the proposed action. The resulting studies could protect sensitive environmental ecosystems, including coral reefs.

Legislative Actions:The Act potentially could protect coral reefs if the proposed federal project could have a significant impact on the reef.

Comments:The Act is completely procedural; it does not include specific regulations. The Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) was created by the Act. CEQ is part of the Executive Office of the President and one of the CEQ directives is to ensure that federal programs comply with NEPA. The puprose of the EIS is to disclose to the public and resource managers the probable long- and short-term impacts of the proposed project as well as consideration of less environmentally damaging alternatives to the recommended course of action. 		Federal agencies

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Agriculture, Aquaculture, & Forestry Policies; Biocriteria; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Regulations; Construction Codes & Projects; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Economic Markets & Policies; Energy Policy & Development; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Landuse Management; Marine Debris; Microorganisms; Non-point Source Controls; Permitting & Zoning; Physical & Chemical Environment; Physical Variables; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Reef Life; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Sectors Filling Human Needs; Security; Socio-Economic Drivers; Transportation Policies; Waste Management Policies; Wetlands
National Marine Sanctuaries Act of 1972, 16 United States Code §§ 1431-1445. Authorizes the Secretary of Commerce to designate and manage areas of the marine environment with special national significance due to their conservation, recreational, ecological, historical, scientific, cultural, archeological, educational, or esthetic qualities as National Marine Sanctuaries.

Application to Coral Reefs:Protects marine resources, such as coral reefs, sunken historical vessels, or unique habitats.

Legislative Actions:NOAA may impose civil penalties up tp $130,000 per day per violation. Criminal penalties were added in the 2000 amendments for interfering or resisting with any enforcement of the NMSA, or providing false information to the Secretary or any officer authorized to enforce NMSA. The 2000 amendments made it illegal to offer for sale, purchase, import, or export, any sanctuary resource and increased enforcement authority.

Comments:There are 13 marine sanctuaries in the National Marine Sactuary System, six of which were created after 1990. Each sanctuary has a separarte staff and program in its local region. 		National Oceanic Aatmospheric Administration

Jurisdiction:
Designated Marine Areas 		Apex Fish Predators; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Regulations; CO2; Coastal Development; Commercial Fishing Boats; Coral; Corporate Responses; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Large Ships; Marine Birds; Marine Protected Areas; Nutrients; Ocean Acidity; Oil & Gas Research & Exploration; Political Pressure; Recreational Opportunities; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Sediment; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Wetlands
National Park Service General Partnership Authorities of 1970, 16 United States Code § 1. The Act supplemented and clarified the National Park Service's mandate with respect to the management of the National Park System.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Park Service

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Regulations; Designated Uses; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Opportunities; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation Policies
National Park Service Organic Act of 1916, 16 United States Code § 1. The Act was created to start the National Park Service within the Department of Interior for the purpose of promoting and regulating the use of federal areas such as national parks and monuments.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:Created the National Park Service to be supervised by a Director.

Comments: 		National Park Service

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Boating Regulations; Collaboration & Partnering; Construction Codes & Projects; Designated Uses; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invasive Species; Landuse Management; Marine Protected Areas; Microorganisms; Permitting & Zoning; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation Policies
National Park Service, Department of Interior,. To conserve the scenery, natural and historic objects, and wildlife of the National Parks; and to provide for the enjoyment of those resources in a sustainable manner. Regulations provide for the proper use, management, government, and protection of persons, property, and natural and cultural resources within areas under the jurisdiction of the National Park Service.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Park Service

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Regulations; Construction Codes & Projects; Deforestation & Devegetation; Designated Uses; Economic Markets & Policies; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Landuse Management; Mangroves; Marine Debris; Marine Protected Areas; Permitting & Zoning; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation Policies
National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966, 16 United States Code § 66. The Act defines the National Wildlife Refuge System and authorizes the Secretary of Interior to permit any use of a refuge provided such use is compatible with the major purpose for which the refuge was established.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		US Fish and Wildlife Serice

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Construction Codes & Projects; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Funding & Donations; Landuse Management; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria; Political Pressure; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation Policies
Proclamation No. 7392, The Buck Island Reef National Park, 66 Federal Register 7335-7336 (2001). 18,000 acres in the US Virgin Islands

Application to Coral Reefs:The Proclamation expanded the original momument thus protecting additional coral reefs within the monument boundaries.

Legislative Actions:

Comments:Together, Proclamation 7399 and 7392 designated a total of 30,843 marine acres in the United States Virgin Isalnds as monuments. 		US Virgin Islands, Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Protection

Jurisdiction:
US Virgin Islands 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Commercial Fishing Boats; Cruise Ships; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Economic Markets & Policies; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Invertebrate Harvest; Mangroves; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Proclamation No. 7399, Establishment of Virgin Islands Coral Reef National monument, 66 Federal Register 7364 (2001). Designated 12,000 marine acres in the US Virgin Islands

Application to Coral Reefs:Monuments include coral reefs thereby providing the coral reefs within the monument bondaries the same protection as the designated monument areas.

Legislative Actions:

Comments:Together, Proclamation 7399 and 7392 designated a total of 30,843 marine acres in the United States Virgin Isalnds as monuments. 		US Virgin Islands, Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Protection

Jurisdiction:
US Virgin Islands 		Building & Home Construction; Commercial Fishing Boats; Designate Protected Species; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Mangroves; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Road Construction & Maintenance; Seagrasses; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Proposed Coral Reef Conservation Act Amendments of 2005, 2007 and 2009,. To preserve, sustain, and restore the condition of coral reef ecosystems, to promote the wise management and sustainable use of coral reef ecosystems, to benefit local communities and the Nation, to develop sound scientific information on the condition of coral reef ecosystems and threats to the ecosystems, to assist in the preservation of coral reefs by supporting and financing conservation programs including local and non-governmental programs, establish a formal mechanism for collecting and allocating monetary donations from the private sector to be used for coral reef conservation projects

Application to Coral Reefs:When passed, the Amendments, among other issues, would reauthorize the Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000 and authorize appropriations through fiscal 2012 for the coral reef conservation program and community- based planning grants. Will authorize activities designed to minimize the likelihood of vessel impacts or other physical dammage to coral reefs, including activities to identify certain at-risk coral reefs. Promote international cooperation, codify the US Coral Reef Task Force.

Legislative Actions:Provided funding for matching grants, encouraged education and outreach, encouaged cooperative conservation and management through partnerships with other federal, state, regional and local partners including citizen groups.

Comments:The amendments would not add regulations to the Act. 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Jurisdiction:
US Coral Reefs 		Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Ballast Discharge; Boat Movement; CO2; Coral; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Educational & Research Opportunities; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Fertilizer & Pesticide Use; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Recreational Opportunities; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Sediment; Tourism & Recreation; Water Transportation
Refuge Recreation Act of 1963, as amended, 16 United States Code § 1962. Authorized the Secretary of the Interior to administer refuges, hatcheries, and other conservation areas for recreational use, when such uses do not interfere with the area's primary purpose. It authorizes construction and maintenance of recreational facilities and the acquisition of land for incidental fish and wildlife-oriented recreational development or protection of natural resources. It also authorizes the charging of fees for public uses.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:The Act established public use fees and permits, and established penalties for violations of regulations.

Comments: 		US Fish and Wildlife Service

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Environmental Education & Outreach; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Revised Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Management Plan §§ Public Law 101-605 (HR 5909, Public Law (2007). The document is a report on the results of NOAA's five year review of strategies and activities detailed in the 1996 Final Management Plan and Environmental Impact Statement for the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary.

Application to Coral Reefs:The plan specifically addresses preserving and enhancing Sanctuary resources including four national wildlife refuges, six state parks, three state aquatic preserves, Key Largo Marine Sanctuary, Looe Key Marine Sanctuary and a total of 2,900 square nautical miles of coastal waters and numerous coral reefs. The sanctuary ecosystems are facing specific threats including direct human impacts such as vessel groundidngs, pollution and overfishing.

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration with the Florida Department of Environmental Protection and the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission as Co-trustees

Jurisdiction:
US Federal Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Anemones & Zooanthids; Apex Fish Predators; Ballast Discharge; Coastal Development; Commercial Fishing Boats; Complex Habitat & Resources; Coral; Cruise Ships; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Economic Markets & Policies; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Littering; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Debris; Natural Gas & Electric Power; Non-point Source Runoff; Nutrients; Ocean Acidity; Oil & Gas Research & Exploration; Oil & Gas Rigs; Recreational Opportunities; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Seastars; Sediment; Sponges; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Waste Management; Waste Management Policies; Waterborne Discharges
Significant amendments to the National Marine Sanctuaries Act of 1972. Amendments of 1980 were PL 96-332, 1984 were PL98-498, 1988 were Title II of PL 100-627, 1992 were PL 102-587, 1996 were PL 104-283 and for 2000 were PL106-513,. Title III of the Marine Protection, Reseach and Sanctuaries Act was amended to create the National Marine Sanctuaries Program. The amendments of 1980 mandated the terms of designation to include the geographic area included within the sanctuary and the characteristics of the area that give it conservation, recreational, ecological, or esthetic value, and the types of activities that would be subject to regulation to protect those characteristics. The 1984 amendments required a Resource Assessment Report documenting present and potential use of the area. 1998 amendments established a special use permit for commercial operations, added a section that a vessel or person causing damage to the resources of a sanctuary would be liable for both response and cleanup costs as well as damages for any sanctuary resource destroyed. Amendments of 1992 provided that Title III may be cited as 'The National Marine Sanctuaries Act." Also, federal agencies had to be consistent with the National Environmental Policy Act in commenting on proposed designations.

Application to Coral Reefs:Strenghtened the protectinon of marine sanctuaries and their resources. Some specific purposes of the Act that add to coral reef protection include; to identify and designate national marine sanctuaries of the marine environment, to maintain the natural b

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Oceanic Aatmospheric Administration

Jurisdiction:
Designated Marine Areas 		Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Ballast Discharge; Boating Activities; Collaboration & Partnering; Commercial Fisheries; Commercial Fishing Boats; Construction Codes & Projects; Coral; Cruise Ships; Deforestation & Devegetation; Economic Markets & Policies; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Large Ships; Mangroves; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Oil & Gas Tankers; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Reef Life; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Wetland & Reef Restoration
Surface water quality standards, 62-302 Florida Administrative Code Annotated (2008). The Chapter establishes the minimum concentrations of contamination that are allowable to protect the designated uses of a waterbody. Designated uses include public drinking water supplies, propagation of fish and wildlife, agricultural, recreation, industrial, and navigation.

Application to Coral Reefs:Protecting surface waters by limiting the concentration of pollutants that can be present will control the concentrations of those pollutants that will reach estuarine and marine environments, thus protecting the associated ecosystems, including coral reefs.

Legislative Actions:Penalties are not presented in the Rule. Specific requirements and penalties are addrressed in individual permits. The Rule relies heavily on biocriteria including acute toxicity, chronic toxicity, Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index. Section 400 presents the classes of Florida waters; Class I potable water supplies, Class II shellfish propagation or harvesting, Class III recreation, propagation and maintenance of a healthy, well-balanced population of fish and wildlife, Class IV agricultural water supplies, Class V navigation, utility and industrial use.

Comments: 		Florida Department of Environmental Protection

Jurisdiction:
State Coastal Waters; US State Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Biocriteria; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Civil Engineering & Construction; Coastal Development; Commercial Fisheries; Complex Habitat & Resources; Dam Construction & Maintenance; Deforestation & Devegetation; Designate Protected Species; Discharge Limitations; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Docks & Marinas; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Drinking Water Supply; Fertilizer & Pesticide Use; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Impervious Surfaces; Invertebrates; Irrigation; Landuse Management; Molluscs; Non-point Source Controls; Non-point Source Runoff; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Nutrients; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria; Pipelines; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Point Source Discharges; Ports & Harbors; Recreational Fishing; Sediment; Sewage Treatment; Shoreline Armoring; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Toxics; Waste Management Policies
Surface waters of the State, Florida Administrative Code Annotated §§ Chapter 62-301 (1996). It is the intent of this Chapter to define the landward externt of surface waters of the state. Te findings, declarations, and intentfor this Chapter are the same as those for Chapter 62-302 F. A. C.

Application to Coral Reefs:By defining the landward extent of surface waters of the State using dominant plant species, the guidance in the Chapter will include wetlands and transitional zones on many occasions. Through the protection of these areas, filtration of sediment and nutrients will be maintained and two of the harmful parameters for coral reefs will be reduced.

Legislative Actions:The Chapter is a guidance document and does not contain penalties. The Chapter provides a list of plant species for use with the guidance as well as the methods of calculating the areas of state waters.

Comments: 		Florida Department of Environmental Protection

Jurisdiction:
State Coastal Waters; US State Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Arthropods; Ballast Discharge; Beaches & Nature Parks; Biotechnology Research & Development; Building & Home Construction; Coastal Development; Docks & Marinas; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Forestry; Invertebrates; Landscape Conservation & Restoration; Landuse Management; Mangroves; Marine Birds; Marine Vertebrates; Molluscs; Non-point Source Runoff; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Petroleum Spills; Pipelines; Ports & Harbors; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Sea Turtles; Seagrasses; Sediment; Shoreline Armoring; Small Boats; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Utility Line Construction & Maintenance; Wastewater Discharge; Wetlands; Whales & Dolphins
The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and Protection Act, Public Law 101-605 (H.R. 5909 United States Code (1990). To protect the resources of the area delineated in section 5(b) of the Act, to educate and interpret for the public regarding the Florida Keys marine environment, and to manage such human uses of the Sanctuary consistent with the Act. Nothing in the Act is intended to restrict activities that do not cause adverse effects to the resources or property of the Sanctuary or that do not pose harm to the users of the Sanctuary.

Application to Coral Reefs:The Sanctuary sets aside the coral reef system that is the thrid largest coral reef barrier in the world. Included in the FKNMS are Key Largo Marine Sanctuary containing 103 square nautical miles of coral reefs and Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary containing 5.32 squared nautical miles of coral reefs.The Act protects the reefs from anchoring directly into the coral formation and taking coral dead or alive in the Sanctuary. From Miami to the Marquesas Keys there are over 6000 patch reefs. The Act also protects mangrove islands and submerged aquatic vegetation, both potential buffers for the reef system against eutrophication and sediment deposition. The Act prohibits oil and hydrocarbon exploration, mining or altering the seabed, restricts large shipping traffic, and restricts the discharge of pollutants, futher protecting mangroves, and submerged aquatic vegetation.

Legislative Actions:The Act required the preparation of a comprehensive mangement plan and implementing regulations to protect Sanctuary resources.

Comments:Large vessel groundings on coral reefs in the Florida Keys was a major driver for the designation of the Sanctuary. In 1989, there were three groundings of large commercial vessels on the coral reef tract within an eighteen day period. 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration as lead agency and Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission, and Monroe County as Co-Trustees

Jurisdiction:
US Coral Reefs; US Federal Waters; US State Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Ballast Discharge; Boating Regulations; Complex Habitat & Resources; Coral; Economic Markets & Policies; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Large Ships; Marine Debris; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Opportunities; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Reef Life; Shoreline Protection; Substrate; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Water Transportation
The Sustainable Fisheries Act, 23 §§ 104-297 (1996). To amend the Magnuson Fisheries Conservation and Management Act to authorize appropriations, to provide for sustainable fisheries, and for other purposes.

Application to Coral Reefs:The law recogonizes that direct and indirect habitat losses have resulted in a diminshed capacity to support existing fish levels. Habitat considerations should receive increased attention for conservation and management of fishery resources in the United States. Therefore, the Act encourages, though not indirectly, the protection of coral reefs.

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Marine Fisheries Service

Jurisdiction:
US Federal Waters 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Commercial Fisheries; Economic Markets & Policies; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Mangroves; Seagrasses

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