Jump to main content or area navigation.

Contact Us

ReefLink Database

Accidental & Illegal Harvest

Accidental & Illegal Harvest

Accidental by-catch is damage or harvest of non-target species, including fish or marine vertebrates, by fishing gear while collecting targeted species. Illegal harvest, or poaching, is collection of species that are protected from harvest.

CMap

Accidental by-catch is damage or harvest of non-target species, including fish or marine vertebrates, by fishing gear while collecting targeted species. Algae are aquatic, photosynthetic plant-like organisms and include calcareous macroalgae, fleshy macroalgae, turf algae, and crustose coralline algae. Anemones & zooanthids are cnidarians very similar to coral, but are not characteristic reef builders. Aquarium and Pet Trade involves the preservation and exhibition of aquatic species for public view or individual hobbies, and the sale of animals. Biological Harvest is the collection of living things from the ecosystem for recreation, consumption, or sale of marine products. Boating Regulations are restrictions placed on boating activities to promote safety for boaters and the natural environment, and can include mooring buoys, registration and licensing, and speed limits. Complex habitat and resources reflects the complex architecture of sessile, plant-like organisms, such as octocoral and sponges, which provides shelter and protection for small fish and other invertebrates from predators. Contact Uses, such as biological additions, physical damage, and biological harvesting, are activities in which humans create pressures through direct contact with the ecosystem. Coral is a colonial marine animal consisting of polyps. Cultural policies are responses that impact the distribution and functioning of cultural sectors, including tourism, recreation, education, and social organization. Cultural services are the nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, recreational opportunities, aesthetic experiences, sense of place, and educational and research opportunities. Culture sectors contribute to the social, emotional, and intellectual well-being of the community. Designated uses are a state's concise statements of its management objectives and expectations for each of the individual surface waters under its jurisdiction. The Dive, Snorkeling, and Swimming Tourism sector includes businesses that provide equipment, instruction, and location to allow tourists to swim, snorkel, and SCUBA dive. Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems . Finfish and shellfish stock are fish (e.g., groupers and snappers) and invertebrates (e.g., lobster, crab, conch, octopus, squid, and bivalves) that are harvested for human consumption as seafood. Fishing is the activity of catching fish for recreational, commercial, or artesanal purposes using any of a variety of fishing gear, including nets, spear guns, or hook and line. Fish are cold-blooded aquatic vertebrates that breathe through gills and usually have scales. Fisheries and hunting policies control who can fish, harvest and hunt. Fishing & harvesting management controls the activities which harvest fish and invertebrates, including commercial and recreational fishing. The Fishing Sector includes the harvesting of fish for food and recreation. The Food and Raw Materials sector includes groups that harvest natural resources from the earth, including agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, forestry, mining, and the oil and gas industry. The Health sector includes groups which provide for human health through medical and social care, and maintenance and disposal of waste. Invertebrate Harvesting is the act of collecting marine invertebrates, including sponges, lobsters, and other invertebrates, for seafood or other marine products. An Invertebrate is any animal that lacks a backbone. Live collection is the collection of colorful or unique species from marine environments, particularly for the marine ornamental industry (e.g., aquariums). Marine products are non-food goods derived from reefs that promote human well-being (e.g, aquarium fish or ornamental resources) and human health (e.g., pharmaceuticals and cosmetics). Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are Any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, tribal, territorial, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein. Marine vertebrates are aquatic animals with a backbone, such as sea turtles, whales, dolphins and marine birds. Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics industries are engaged in manufacturing drugs, medicines and related products for human or animal use. The Reef Ecosystem includes a suite of abiotic variables that form the physical and chemical environment. Pressures are human activities that create stress on the environment. Provisioning services are the products or ecosystem goods obtained from ecosystems, including seafood, genetic and biochemical resources, pharmaceuticals, ornamental resources, and water resources. Aesthetic & recreational value pertains to the value derived from the visual beauty and recreational opportunities provided by a natural ecosystem, including an assemblage of diverse, healthy, colorful, or unique species. The state of the Reef Ecosystem is the condition, in terms of quantity and quality, of the abiotic and biotic components including physical, chemical, and biological variables. Reef Habitat is the abundance, distribution, and condition of the benthic components of the reef ecosystem. Reef Inhabitants are all of the motile components of the reef ecosystem, including fish, invertebrates, marine reptiles and mammals, and are quantified by their abundance, distribution, and condition. Reef Life is the abundance, distribution, and condition of the biological components of the coral reef ecosystem. Resource use management pertains to responses to regulate or limit contact activities that may directly impact coastal species through harvesting or physical damage. Responses are actions taken by groups or individuals in society and government to prevent, compensate, ameliorate or adapt to changes in Ecosystem Services or their perceived value. Security policies include all actions that ensure the public is safe and secure. Socio-Economic Drivers include the sectors that fulfill human needs for Food & Raw Materials, Water, Shelter, Health, Culture, and Security, and the Infrastructure that supports the sectors. The Souvenir and Decorative Trade is involved in producing and selling souvenirs and novelty decorative items, including those derived from marine products. Sponges are sessile colonial animals with soft porous bodies supported by a fibrous skeletal framework. Supporting services are ecological processes that indirectly benefit humans by maintaining a functional ecosystem for the production of other ecosystem goods and services.

CMap Description

Poaching of protected species, such as coral or rare fish, may occur by individuals for their personal collection or to sell. The fishing sector is primarily responsible for accidental by-catch through their fishing practices. Accidental by-catch creates pressure on the reef ecosystem by removing or damaging non-fisheries-targeted species. This is of particular concern for parrotfishes and sea turtles, which are frequently caught in fishing nets. Parrotfishes, in particular are a key grazer, helping to maintain algae and prevent it from overgrowing coral. Changes in coral, or loss of key species, can have consequences for the provision of ecosystem services. Loss of habitat for fish will have direct consequences for the fishing sector, but other services, such as aesthetic value and shoreline protection could have negative impacts on tourism or property damage. Responses such as Bycatch Excluder Devices and Marine Protected Areas can limit accidental by-catch and help protect susceptible species. Law enforcement may aid in reducing illegal harvest.

Citations

Citation Year Study Location Study Type Database Topics
Bellchambers, LM; Meeuwig, JJ; Evans, SN; Legendre, P. 2011. Modelling habitat associations of 14 species of holothurians from an unfished coral atoll: implications for fisheries management. Aquatic Biology 14:57-66. 2011 Model Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Commercial Fisheries; Echinoderms; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Octocoral
Braga-Henriques, A; Carreiro-Silva, M; Porteiro, FM; de Matos, V; Sampaio, I; Ocana, O; Avila, SP. 2011. The association between a deep-sea gastropod Pedicularia sicula (Caenogastropoda: Pediculariidae) and its coral host Errina dabneyi (Hydrozoa: Stylasteridae) in the Azores. ICES Journal of Marine Science 68:399-407. 2011 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest
Davies, AJ; Guinotte, JM. 2011. Global Habitat Suitability for Framework-Forming Cold-Water Corals. PLoS One 6. 2011 Global; US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia; Indian Ocean; US East Coast (NC, SC, GA); India Field Study & Monitoring; Model; GIS & Maps Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Calcium Carbonate Deposition; Commercial Fisheries; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Ocean Acidity; Salinity; Stony Coral
Du Preez, C; Tunnicliffe, V. 2011. Shortspine thornyhead and rockfish (Scorpaenidae) distribution in response to substratum, biogenic structures and trawling. Marine Ecology Progress Series 425:217-231. 2011 US Pacific & Hawaii; Columbia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Sediment; Sponges; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Lindley, ST; Erickson, DL; Moser, ML; Williams, G; Langness, OP; McCovey, BW; Belchik, M; Vogel, D; Pinnix, W; Kelly, JT; Heublein, JC; Klimley, AP. 2011. Electronic Tagging of Green Sturgeon Reveals Population Structure and Movement among Estuaries. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 140:108-122. 2011 US Pacific & Hawaii; US East Coast (NC, SC, GA); Columbia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Waterborne Discharges
Mclean, DL; Harvey, ES; Meeuwig, JJ. 2011. Declines in the abundance of coral trout (Plectropomus leopardus) in areas closed to fishing at the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 406:71-78. 2011 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas
Mercier, A; Hamel, JF. 2011. Contrasting reproductive strategies in three deep-sea octocorals from eastern Canada: Primnoa resedaeformis, Keratoisis ornata, and Anthomastus grandiflorus. Coral Reefs 30:337-350. 2011 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Octocoral; Stony Coral
Munoz, PD; Murillo, FJ; Sayago-Gil, M; Serrano, A; Laporta, M; Otero, I; Gomez, C. 2011. Effects of deep-sea bottom longlining on the Hatton Bank fish communities and benthic ecosystem, north-east Atlantic. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 91:939-952. 2011 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Collaboration & Partnering; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Littering; Marine Birds; Sponges; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Murillo, FJ; Munoz, PD; Altuna, A; Serrano, A. 2011. Distribution of deep-water corals of the Flemish Cap, Flemish Pass, and the Grand Banks of Newfoundland (Northwest Atlantic Ocean): interaction with fishing activities. ICES Journal of Marine Science 68:319-332. 2011 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA); Atlantic Ocean GIS & Maps Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Octocoral; Stony Coral
Murugan, A; Dhanya, S; Sarcar, AB; Naganathan, V; Rajagopal, S; Balasubramanian, T. 2011. Fishery biology, demography of three spotted seahorse, Hippocampus trimaculatus inhabiting Gulf of Mannar region, Southeast coast of India. Indian journal of GeoMarine Sciences 40:411-423. 2011 India Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Seagrasses; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Shester, GG; Micheli, F. 2011. Conservation challenges for small-scale fisheries: Bycatch and habitat impacts of traps and gillnets. Biological Conservation 144:1673-1681. 2011 South & Central America; Mexico Field Study & Monitoring Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Octocoral; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Tracey, DM; Rowden, AA; Mackay, KA; Compton, T. 2011. Habitat-forming cold-water corals show affinity for seamounts in the New Zealand region. Marine Ecology Progress Series 430:1-U59. 2011 Model Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Octocoral; Stony Coral
Vijayanand, P; Anbalagan, T; Saravanan, R; Ammaiappan, V; Rajagopal, S. 2011. Diversity Of Wrasse Species Along Gulf Of Mannar Biosphere Reserve (South East Coast Of India). Thalassas 27:57-66. 2011 India Index or Indicator Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Molluscs; Planktivorous Fish
Brothers, N., A. R. Duckworth, C. Safina, and E. L. Gilman. 2010. Seabird Bycatch in Pelagic Longline Fisheries Is Grossly Underestimated when Using Only Haul Data. PLoS One 5:e12491. 2010 US Pacific & Hawaii; Indian Ocean; India; Pacific Ocean Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Marine Birds
Chong, V. C., P. K. Y. Lee, and C. M. Lau. 2010. Diversity, extinction risk and conservation of Malaysian fishes. Journal of Fish Biology 76:2009-2066. 2010 Malaysia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Sediment
Claudet, J., C. W. Osenberg, P. Domenici, F. Badalamenti, M. Milazzo, J. M. Falcon, I. Bertocci, L. Benedetti-Cecchi, J. A. Garcia-Charton, R. Goni, J. A. Borg, A. Forcada, G. A. de Lucia, A. Perez-Ruzafa, P. Afonso, A. Brito, I. Guala, L. Le Direach, and Sanchez-Jerez,. 2010. Marine reserves: Fish life history and ecological traits matter. Ecological Applications 20:830-839. 2010 Europe Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Monetary Valuation
de Almeida, M. T. R., G. E. Siless, C. D. Perez, M. J. Veloso, L. Schejter, L. Puricelli, and J. A. Palermo. 2010. Dolabellane Diterpenoids from the South Atlantic Gorgonian Convexella magelhaenica. Journal of Natural Products 73:1714-1717. 2010 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Finfish Harvest; Octocoral
Gilman, E., J. Gearhart, B. Price, S. Eckert, H. Milliken, J. Wang, Y. Swimmer, D. Shiode, O. Abe, S. H. Peckham, M. Chaloupka, M. Hall, J. Mangel, J. Alfaro-Shigueto, P. Dalzell, and A. Ishizaki. 2010. Mitigating sea turtle by-catch in coastal passive net fisheries. Fish and Fisheries 11:57-88. 2010 Review Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Mitigation; Sea Turtles
Grandcourt, E., T. Z. Al Abdessalaam, F. Francis, and A. Al Shamsi. 2010. Age-based life history parameters and status assessments of by-catch species (Lethrinus borbonicus, Lethrinus microdon, Pomacanthus maculosus and Scolopsis taeniatus) in the southern Arabian Gulf. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 26:381-389. 2010 Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish
Johnson, A. E. 2010. Reducing bycatch in coral reef trap fisheries: escape gaps as a step towards sustainability. Marine Ecology Progress Series 415:201-209. 2010 South & Central America; Antilles; Caribbean Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Corallivorous Fish; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Large Herbivorous Fish; Monetary Valuation; Piscivorous Fish; Small Herbivorous Fish
Koldewey, H. J., D. Curnick, S. Harding, L. R. Harrison, and M. Gollock. 2010. Potential benefits to fisheries and biodiversity of the Chagos Archipelago/British Indian Ocean Territory as a no-take marine reserve. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60:1906-1915. 2010 Indian Ocean; Chagos Archipelago; India Review; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas
Price, A. R. G., A. Harris, A. Mcgowan, A. J. Venkatachalam, and C. R. C. Sheppard. 2010. Chagos feels the pinch: assessment of holothurian (sea cucumber) abundance, illegal harvesting and conservation prospects in British Indian Ocean Territory. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 20:117-126. 2010 US Pacific & Hawaii; Indian Ocean; Chagos Archipelago; Sri Lanka; India Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Commercial Fisheries; Echinoderms; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector
Ramon, M., J. Lleonart, and E. Massuti. 2010. Royal cucumber (Stichopus regalis) in the northwestern Mediterranean: Distribution pattern and fishery. Fisheries Research 105:21-27. 2010 Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Echinoderms; Fishing Sector
Stephen, J. A. and P. J. Harris. 2010. Commercial catch composition with discard and immediate release mortality proportions off the southeastern coast of the United States. Fisheries Research 103:18-24. 2010 Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invertivorous Fish; Piscivorous Fish; Special Use Permitting
Wallace, B. P., R. L. Lewison, S. L. McDonald, R. K. McDonald, C. Y. Kot, S. Kelez, R. K. Bjorkland, E. M. Finkbeiner, S. Helmbrecht, and L. B. Crowder. 2010. Global patterns of marine turtle bycatch. Conservation Letters [inpress]. 2010 Global; US Pacific & Hawaii; Indian Ocean; India Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Marine Birds; Sea Turtles; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Bell, J. D., E. Clua, C. A. Hair, R. Galzin, and P. J. Doherty. 2009. The Capture and Culture of Post-Larval Fish and Invertebrates for the Marine Ornamental Trade. Reviews in Fisheries Science 17:223-240. 2009 Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquaculture; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Infrastructural Policies; Infrastructure; Plankton; Substrate; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Gallaway, B. J., S. T. Szedlmayer, and W. J. Gazey. 2009. A life history review for red snapper in the Gulf of Mexico with an evaluation of the importance of offshore petroleum platforms and other artificial reefs. Reviews in Fisheries Science 17:48-67. 2009 South & Central America; Mexico Review Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Artificial Habitat; Complex Habitat & Resources; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Oil & Gas Rigs; Piscivorous Fish
Heupel, M. R., A. J. Williams, D. J. Welch, A. Ballagh, B. D. Mapstone, G. Carlos, C. Davies, and C. A. Simpfendorfer. 2009. Effects of fishing on tropical reef associated shark populations on the Great Barrier Reef. Fisheries Research 95:350-361. 2009 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas
Himmelman, J. H., H. E. Guderley, and P. F. Duncan. 2009. Responses of the saucer scallop Amusium balloti to potential predators. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 378:58-61. 2009 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Seastars; Sediment
Martin-Smith, K. 2009. A Risk-Management Framework For Avoiding Significant Adverse Impacts Of Bottom Fishing Gear On Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems. Ccamlr Science 16:177-193. 2009 Review; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Marine Birds; Scientific Research; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Nelson, D.M., T. Haverland, and E. Finnen. 2009. EcoGIS - GIS Tools for Ecosystem Approaches to Fisheries Management. Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 75, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring (MD, USA). 2009 Field Study & Monitoring; GIS & Maps; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Collaboration & Partnering; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector
Parker, S. J., A. J. Penney, and M. R. Clark. 2009. Detection criteria for managing trawl impacts on vulnerable marine ecosystems in high seas fisheries of the South Pacific Ocean. Marine Ecology Progress Series 397:309-317. 2009 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia; Pacific Ocean Model; Index or Indicator Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector
Peters, H. and J. P. Hawkins. 2009. Access to marine parks: A comparative study in willingness to pay. Ocean and Coastal Management 52:219-228. 2009 Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Funding & Donations; Funding & Incentives; Marine Protected Areas; Monetary Valuation; Tourism & Recreation
Pitcher, C. R., C. Y. Burridge, T. J. Wassenberg, B. J. Hill, and I. R. Poiner. 2009. A large scale BACI experiment to test the effects of prawn trawling on seabed biota in a closed area of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia. Fisheries Research 99:168-183. 2009 Australia Review Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invertebrates; Marine Protected Areas; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Seas At Risk. 2009. Moving Towards Low Impact Fisheries In Europe Policy Hurdles & Actions. 2009 Southeast Asia; Europe Review Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Banks, Credit, & Securities; Climate; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Funding & Incentives; Special Use Permitting; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage; Utility Line Construction & Maintenance
Shipp, R. L. and S. A. Bortone. 2009. A prospective of the importance of artificial habitat on the management of red snapper in the Gulf of Mexico. Reviews in Fisheries Science 17:41-47. 2009 South & Central America; Mexico Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Artificial Habitat; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Piscivorous Fish; Special Use Permitting
Wallace, B. P., L. Avens, J. Braun-McNeill, and C. M. McClellan. 2009. The diet composition of immature loggerheads: Insights on trophic niche, growth rates, and fisheries interactions. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 373:50-57. 2009 Global; US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Commercial Fisheries; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Nutrients; Sea Turtles; Snails & Conch; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Courtney, A. J., M. J. Campbell, D. P. Roy, M. L. Tonks, K. E. Chilcott, and P. M. Kyne. 2008. Round scallops and square meshes: A comparison of four codend types on the catch rates of target species and by-catch in the Queensland (Australia) saucer scallop (Amusium balloti) trawl fishery. Marine and Freshwater Research 59:849-864. 2008 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Bivalves; Echinoderms; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invertebrates; Invertivorous Fish; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Molluscs; Sea Urchins; Seastars; Sponges
Dryden, J., A. Grech, J. Moloney, and M. Hamann. 2008. Rezoning of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area: Does it afford greater protection for marine turtles? Wildlife Research 35:477-485. 2008 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Commercial Fisheries; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Landuse Management; Marine Protected Areas; Sea Turtles; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Eggleston, D. B., D. M. Parsons, G. T. Kellison, G. R. Plaia, and E. G. Johnson. 2008. Functional response of sport divers to lobsters with application to fisheries management. Ecological Applications 18:258-272. 2008 South & Central America; Florida; Cuba; Caribbean Index or Indicator Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Commercial Fisheries; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Feitosa, C. V., B. P. Ferreira, and M. Elisabeth De Araujo. 2008. A rapid new method for assessing sustainability of ornamental fish by-catch from coral reefs. Marine and Freshwater Research 59:1092-1100. 2008 Index or Indicator Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Invertivorous Fish
Frisch, A. J., R. Baker, J.-P.A. Hobbs, and L. Nankervis. 2008. A quantitative comparison of recreational spearfishing and linefishing on the Great Barrier Reef: Implications for management of multi-sector coral reef fisheries. Coral Reefs 27:85-95. 2008 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Cultural Policies; Cultural Protections; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Recreational Fishing; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation
Grech, A., H. Marsh, and R. Coles. 2008. A spatial assessment of the risk to a mobile marine mammal from bycatch. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 18:1127-1139. 2008 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Commercial Fisheries; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Landuse Management; Whales & Dolphins
Hickford, M. J. H. and D. R. Schiel. 2008. Experimental gill-netting of reef fish: Species-specific responses modify capture probability across mesh sizes. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 358:163-169. 2008 Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fish; Whales & Dolphins
Jeffers, S. A., W. F. Patterson III, and J. H. Cowan Jr. 2008. Habitat and bycatch effects on population parameters of inshore lizardfish (Synodus foetens) in the north central Gulf of Mexico. Fishery Bulletin 106:417-426. 2008 South & Central America; Mexico Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Artificial Habitat; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Skeletal Coral; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Kleczkowski, M., R. C. Babcock, and G. Clapin. 2008. Density and size of reef fishes in and around a temperate marine reserve. Marine and Freshwater Research 59:165-176. 2008 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Mortensen, P. B., L. Buhl-Mortensen, A. V. Gebruk, and E. M. Krylova. 2008. Occurrence of deep-water corals on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge based on MAR-ECO data. Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 55:142-152. 2008 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Bivalves; Echinoderms; Finfish Harvest; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Octocoral; Sponges
Murugan, A., S. Dhanya, S. Rajagopal, and T. Balasubramanian. 2008. Seahorses and pipefishes of the Tamil Nadu coast. Current Science 95:253-260. 2008 India; Oman Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fish; Seagrasses; Skeletal Coral
Shertzer, K. W. and E. H. Williams. 2008. Fish assemblages and indicator species: Reef fishes off the southeastern United States. Fishery Bulletin 106:257-269. 2008 Index or Indicator Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation
Teh, L. C. L., L. S. L. Teh, and F. C. Chung. 2008. A private management approach to coral reef conservation in Sabah, Malaysia. Biodiversity and Conservation 17:3061-3077. 2008 Malaysia Field Study & Monitoring Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Banks, Credit, & Securities; Collaboration & Partnering; Finfish Harvest; Hotel & Food Services; Marine Protected Areas; Special Use Permitting
Williams, A. J., A. C. Ballagh, G. A. Begg, C. D. Murchie, and L. M. Currey. 2008. Harvest patterns and effort dynamics of indigenous and non-indigenous commercial sectors of the eastern Torres Strait reef line fishery. Continental Shelf Research 28:2117-2128. 2008 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector
Akiyama, S., E. Saito, and T. Watanabe. 2007. Relationship between soak time and number of enmeshed animals in experimentally lost gill nets. Fisheries Science 73:881-888. 2007 Japan Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Artificial Habitat; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp
Kershaw, S., Y. Li, and L. Guo. 2007. Micritic fabrics define sharp margins of Wenlock patch reefs (middle Silurian) in Gotland and England. Geological Society Special Publication 87-94. 2007 England Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Algae; Sediment
Meyer, C. G. 2007. The impacts of spear and other recreational fishers on a small permanent Marine Protected Area and adjacent pulse fished area. Fisheries Research 84:301-307. 2007 US Pacific & Hawaii Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Invertivorous Fish; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Morgan, S. K. and A. C. J. Vincent. 2007. The ontogeny of habitat associations in the tropical tiger tail seahorse Hippocampus comes Cantor, 1850. Journal of Fish Biology 71:701-724. 2007 Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Algae; Aquaculture; Finfish Harvest; Fleshy Macroalgae; Seagrasses; Sponges; Stony Coral
Taquet, M., G. Sancho, L. Dagorn, J.-C. Gaertner, D. Itano, R. Aumeeruddy, B. Wendling, and C. Peignon. 2007. Characterizing fish communities associated with drifting fish aggregating devices (FADs) in the Western Indian Ocean using underwater visual surveys. Aquatic Living Resource 20:331-341. 2007 Indian Ocean; Seychelles; Reunion; India Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fish; Invertivorous Fish
Wolfe, D., C. Dolan, and D. Hoskins. 2007. Stormy voyage. Environmental Forum 24:26-30. 2007 Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Recreational Fishing; Storms & Hurricanes; Tourism & Recreation
Kelley, C. and W. Ikehara. 2006. The impacts of bottomfishing on Raita and West St. Rogatien Banks in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin 305-317. 2006 US Pacific & Hawaii Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Last, P. R., J. A. Chidlow, and L. J. V. Compagno. 2006. A new wobbegong shark, Orectolobus hutchinsi n. sp. (Orectolobiformes: Orectolobidae) from southwestern Australia. Zootaxa 35-48. 2006 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Morgan, S. K. and S. A. Lourie. 2006. Threatened fishes of the world: Hippocampus comes cantor 1850 (Syngnathidae). Environmental Biology of Fishes 75:311-313. 2006 Global; Thailand; Malaysia; Vietnam; Indonesia; Philippines Field Study & Monitoring; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Biomedical Research Policies; Climate; Collaboration & Partnering; Complex Habitat & Resources; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Protected Areas; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics; Seagrasses; Sponges; Stony Coral; Substrate
Fox, H. E., P. J. Mous, J. S. Pet, A. H. Muljadi, and R. L. Caldwell. 2005. Experimental assessment of coral reef rehabilitation following blast fishing. Conservation Biology 19:98-107. 2005 Southeast Asia; Indonesia Field Study & Monitoring Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Skeletal Coral; Stony Coral; Wetland & Reef Restoration
Marsh, H., G. De'ath, N. Gribble, and B. Lane. 2005. Historical marine population estimates: Triggers or targets for conservation? The dugong case study. Ecological Applications 15:481-492. 2005 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Marine Vertebrates; Seagrasses
Salin, K. R., T. M. Yohannan, and C. Mohanakumaran Nair. 2005. Fisheries and trade of seahorses, Hippocampus spp., in southern India. Fisheries Management and Ecology 12:269-273. 2005 India; Malaysia; United Arab Emirates Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Echinoderms; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics; Sponges; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Sumpton, W. and S. Jackson. 2005. The effects of incidental trawl capture of juvenile snapper (Pagrus auratus) on yield of a sub-tropical line fishery in Australia: An assessment examining habitat preference and early life history characteristics. Fisheries Research 71:335-347. 2005 Australia Model Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Octocoral; Piscivorous Fish; Skeletal Coral; Substrate; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2005. Reviewing environmental impact statements for fishery management plans. Office of Federal Activities, Washington DC. 2005 Review; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fishing Sector; Internet & Telecommunications; Special Use Permitting
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2005. Reviewing environmental impact statements for fishery management plans. Washington DC. 2005 Review Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Special Use Permitting
Davis, K. L. F., G. R. Russ, D. H. Williamson, and R. D. Evans. 2004. Surveillance and poaching on inshore reefs of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Coastal Management 32:373-387. 2004 Australia Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Landuse Management; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation
Jenkins, G. P. 2004. The ecosystem effects of abalone fishing: A review. Marine and Freshwater Research 55:545-552. 2004 Review; Index or Indicator Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Finfish Harvest; Marine Protected Areas; Sea Urchins; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Tibbetts, J. 2004. The state of the oceans, part 1: eating away at a global food source. Environmental Health Perspectives 112:A282-A291. 2004 Global Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquaculture; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Pathogens
Anderson, O. F. and M. R. Clark. 2003. Analysis of bycatch in the fishery for orange roughy, Hoplostethus atlanticus, on the South Tasman Rise. Marine and Freshwater Research 54:643-652. 2003 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Stony Coral; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Eggleston, D. B., E. G. Johnson, G. T. Kellison, and D. A. Nadeau. 2003. Intense removal and non-saturating functional responses by recreational divers on spiny lobster Panulirus argus. Marine Ecology Progress Series 257:197-207. 2003 South & Central America; Florida; Cuba; Caribbean Index or Indicator Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Gribble, N.A. 2003. GBR-prawn: modelling ecosystem impacts of changes in fisheries management of the commercial prawn (shrimp) trawl fishery in the far northern Great Barrier Reef. Fisheries Research 65:493-506. 2003 Australia Model Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Complex Habitat & Resources; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Birds; Piscivorous Fish; Sea Turtles; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Allen, G. R. and T. B. Werner. 2002. Coral reef fish assessment in the 'coral triangle' of southeastern Asia. Environmental Biology of Fishes 65:209-214. 2002 Cuba; Papua New Guinea; Indonesia; Philippines Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish
Beattie, A., U.R. Sumaila, V. Christensen, D. Pauly. 2002. A Model for the Bioeconomic Evaluation of Marine Protected Area Size and Placement in the North Sea. Natural Resource Modeling 15:413-437. 2002 Field Study & Monitoring; Model; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Whales & Dolphins
Cochrane, K.L., editor. 2002. A Fishery Manager's Guidebook. Management Measures and their application. Fisheries Technical Paper 424, FAO, Rome. 2002 Review; Field Study & Monitoring Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Collaboration & Partnering; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Hall-Spencer, J., V. Allain, and J. H. Fossa. 2002. Trawling damage to Northeast Atlantic ancient coral reefs. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 269:507-511. 2002 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA); Norway Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Ley, J. A., I. A. Halliday, A. J. Tobin, R. N. Garrett, and N. A. Gribble. 2002. Ecosystem effects of fishing closures in mangrove estuaries of tropical Australia. Marine Ecology Progress Series 245:223-238. 2002 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Mangroves; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Workman, I. K. and D. G. Foster. 2002. The webbing reef: A tool used in the study of juvenile red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus). Pages 146-150 in Oceans Conference Record (IEEE). 2002 South & Central America; Florida; Mexico Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates; Piscivorous Fish
Fry, G. C., D. A. Milton, and T. J. Wassenberg. 2001. The reproductive biology and diet of sea snake bycatch of prawn trawling in Northern Australia: Characteristics important for assessing the impacts on populations. Pacific Conservation Biology 7:55-73. 2001 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Commercial Fishing Boats; Complex Habitat & Resources; Fish; Fishing Sector; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Chesney, E. J., D. M. Baltz, and R. G. Thomas. 2000. Louisiana estuarine and coastal fisheries and habitats: Perspectives from a fish's eye view. Ecological Applications 10:350-366. 2000 South & Central America; Mexico Review Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Artificial Habitat; Coastal Development; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Nutrients; Oil & Gas Research & Exploration; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Wetlands
Craig, P., S. Saucerman, and S. Wiegman. 2000. The central South Pacific Ocean (American Samoa). Seas at the millennium - an environmental evaluation - Volume 2 765-772. 2000 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia; Pacific Ocean; Samoa; American Samoa Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Environmental Education & Outreach; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Landuse Management; Marine Protected Areas; Sediment; Special Use Permitting
Hill, B. J. and T. J. Wassenberg. 2000. The probable fate of discards from prawn trawlers fishing near coral reefs: A study in the northern Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Fisheries Research 48:277-286. 2000 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Birds; Octopus & Squid; Sponges; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage; Whales & Dolphins
Stevens, J. D., R. Bonfil, N. K. Dulvy, and P. A. Walker. 2000. The effects of fishing on sharks, rays, and chimaeras (chondrichthyans), and the implications for marine ecosystems. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57:476-494. 2000 Global; US Pacific & Hawaii; Venezuela; Pacific Ocean Review; Model Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector
Booth, A. J., S. L. Brouwer, and T. Hecht. 1999. Considerations on the feasibility of a directed fishery for panga Pterogymnus laniarius (Pisces: Sparidae). South African Journal of Marine Science 77-88. 1999 South Africa Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector
Potoschi, A., O. Renones, and L. Cannizzaro. 1999. Sexual development, maturity and reproduction of dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus) in the western and central Mediterranean. Scientia Marina 63:367-372. 1999 Index or Indicator Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish
Prena, J., P. Schwinghamer, T. W. Rowell, D. C. Gordon Jr., K. D. Gilkinson, W. P. Vass, and D. L. McKeown. 1999. Experimental otter trawling on a sandy bottom ecosystem of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland: Analysis of trawl bycatch and effects on epifauna. Marine Ecology Progress Series 181:107-124. 1999 China Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Echinoderms; Finfish Harvest; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Molluscs; Octocoral; Sea Urchins; Seastars; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Renones, O., B. Morales-Nin, and S. Deudero. 1999. Population size structure, age and growth of Naucrates ductor in the small scale FADs fishery of Mallorca Island (western Mediterranean). Scientia Marina 63:355-366. 1999 Lab Study Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Whales & Dolphins
Walters, C., D. Pauly, and V. Christensen. 1999. Ecospace: prediction of mesoscale spatial patterns in trophic relationships of exploited ecosystems, with emphasis on the impacts of marine protected areas. Ecosystems 2:539-554. 1999 Global Model; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas
Blaber, S. J. M., D. A. Milton, M. J. Farmer, and G. C. Smith. 1998. Seabird breeding populations on the far northern Great Barrier Reef, Australia: Trends and influences. Emu 98:44-57. 1998 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Marine Birds; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Gittings, S. R. 1998. Reef community stability on the Flower Garden Banks, northwest Gulf of Mexico. Gulf of Mexico Science 16:161-169. 1998 South & Central America; Mexico Field Study & Monitoring Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish Harvest; Pathogens; Special Use Permitting; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Jennings, S. and M. J. Kaiser. 1998. The effects of fishing on marine ecosystems. Advances in Marine Biology 201-352. 1998 Review Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invertivorous Fish; Marine Birds; Sea Urchins; Whales & Dolphins
Pugliese, R. 1998. Final habitat plan for the South Atlantic Region. South Atlantic Fishery Management Council, Charleston, SC. 1998 Florida; US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Field Study & Monitoring; Model Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Agriculture; Aquaculture; Commercial Fisheries; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Fleshy Macroalgae; Invertebrate Harvest; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Mangroves; Monetary Valuation; Nutrients; Oil & Gas Research & Exploration; Piscivorous Fish; Recreational Fishing; Seagrasses; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Wassenberg, T. J., C. Y. Burridge, M. Connell, and N. Gribble. 1998. A validation of short-duration scientific tows as a representation of long commercial-length tows: Comparing the catch rates, size composition and species composition of prawn trawler bycatch in the far northern Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Fisheries Research 36:35-46. 1998 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates
Probert, P. K., D. G. McKnight, and S. L. Grove. 1997. Benthic invertebrate bycatch from a deep-water trawl fishery, Chatham rise, New Zealand. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 7:27-40. 1997 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Review Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Echinoderms; Fishing Sector; Stony Coral; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage; Water Depth & Sea Level
Jennings, S., S. S. Marshall, and N. V. C. Polunin. 1996. Seychelles' marine protected areas: Comparative structure and status of reef fish communities. Biological Conservation 75:201-209. 1996 Seychelles Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Complex Habitat & Resources; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation
Stobbs, R. E. and M. N. Bruton. 1991. The fishery of the Comoros, with comments on its possible impact on coelacanth survival. Environmental Biology of Fishes 32:341-359. 1991 Comoros Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Finfish Harvest; Fish
Craik, W., J. Glaister, and I. Poiner. 1990. The effects of fishing. The effects of fishing. 1990 Australia; New Caledonia Review Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Discharges; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Sea Turtles; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Gutherz, E. J. and G. J. Pellegrin. 1988. Estimate of the catch of red snapper, Lutjanus campechanus, by shrimp trawlers in the US Gulf of Mexico. Marine Fisheries Review 50:17-25. 1988 South & Central America; Mexico Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Piscivorous Fish

Management Options

Management Option Description Sources Database Topics
Develop & Distribute Educational Materials: Establish VHF Radio Stations The local sanctuary staff should work to secure a VHF radio station dedicated to provide information about local boating and water activities in multiple languages. Broadcast messages can include, but are not limited to information about regulations, navigation, resources, weather, and reef conditions. This will help prevent boaters, divers, and fishermen from negatively affecting the ecosystem. Assessments regarding cost and target audience areas must be conducted and external funding pursued to supplement the expense. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Ballast Discharge; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Environmental Education & Outreach; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Security & Public Administration Policies; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Economic Markets & Policy: Regulate International Trade of Reef Species Many coral reef species are harvested internationally for a variety of markets including the aquarium trade, food, curios, jewelry and pharmaceuticals. The US is the largest importer for many of these markets. The US strictly limits extraction of stony coral and many reef species in its waters; but as a major importer and consumer of coral reef species, more actions can be taken to decrease the demand on international imports. Setting and enforcing regulations on what can be imported (such as Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species CITES) is one approach that has been taken. More information is needed, leaving room to collect trade data and assess the impacts of extraction techniques to find sustainable methods. Demand for species collected this way will be increased with greater transparency to consumers, which can be accomplished through certifications for environmentally cognoscente collectors and those using alternatives like aquaculture and coral farming. Continued participation in Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) is also beneficial. U.S. Coral Reef Task Force. 2000. International Trade in Coral and Coral Reef Species: The Role of the United States. Report of the Trade Subgroup of the International Working Group to the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force, Washington, D.C.

World Resource Institute International Marinelife Alliance, editor. 1997. Sullied Seas. WRI, Washington D.C.

U.S. Coral Reef Task Force. 2000. The National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs. Washington, D.C.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquaculture; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Collaboration & Partnering; Coral; Corporate Responses; Cultural Policies; Designate Protected Species; Economic Markets & Policies; Environmental Education & Outreach; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates; Live Collection; Manufacturing & Trade; Manufacturing & Trade Policies; Marine Products; Ornamental Jewelry & Art; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics Sources; Political Pressure; Souvenir & Decorative Trade; Sponges; Stony Coral; Toxics; Wholesale & Retail Trade
Evaluating Fishing Gear/Method Impacts: Evaluate impacts of existing fishing gear and methods on habitats Research is needed to investigate impact on habitat of commercial and recreation fishing gear and methods. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Biological Harvest; Boating Activities; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Coral; Culture; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Food & Raw Materials; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Physical Damage; Pressures; Recreational Fishing; Reef Habitat; Reef Life; Resource Use Management; Responses; Sectors Filling Human Needs; Socio-Economic Drivers; Tourism & Recreation; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Evaluating Fishing Gear/Method Impacts: Conduct research on the ecological impacts on sanctuary preservation areas of baiting fishing and catch-and-release fishing by trolling It is necessary to asses the ecological effects of catch�and-release fishing by trolling and bait-fishing in order to make informed decisions regarding their provisions in protected areas. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Aquaculture; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Activities; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Coral; Culture; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Food & Raw Materials; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Physical Damage; Pressures; Recreational Fishing; Reef Habitat; Reef Life; Resource Use Management; Responses; Sectors Filling Human Needs; Socio-Economic Drivers; Tourism & Recreation; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Fishing & Harvesting Management: Derelict Fishing Gear & Ghost Fishing The term "ghost fishing" is used to describe the capture of marine organisms by lost or abandoned fishing gear. This is particularly a problem with gillnets, trammel nets and pots. Gear is usually lost because it becomes stuck on rough bottoms containing corals and stones, causing the buoy line to break during retrieval. Nets or pots may continue to fish for years, with captured fish and crustaceans dying and serving as attracting bait for more fish and organisms. Ghost fishing may therefore represent a serious problem in many areas, causing hidden fishing mortality over a long period of time. This management option co-insides with (#63) Respond to Natural Resource Injuries form Derelict Vessels. Cochrane, K.L., editor. 2002. A Fishery Manager's Guidebook. Management Measures and their application. Fisheries Technical Paper 424, FAO, Rome.

Seas At Risk. 2009. Moving Towards Low Impact Fisheries In Europe Policy Hurdles & Actions.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Aquaculture; Arthropods; Artificial Habitat; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Addition; Biological Harvest; Commercial Fisheries; Corallivorous Fish; Discharges; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertivorous Fish; Large Herbivorous Fish; Littering; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Debris; Piscivorous Fish; Planktivorous Fish; Provisioning Services; Recreational Fishing; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Fishing & Harvesting Management: Research Low-impact Fishing Gear & Methods Facilitating research to develop gear designs and fishing methods that minimize impacts is multifaceted. Ideal fishing gear is selective for the target species and sizes, with negligible direct or indirect impact on non-target species, sizes and habitats; but also efficient, giving quality, high catches at the lowest possible cost. Newly developed low-impact gear allows fishermen to fulfill their needs, providing food and income, while lessening the unintended environmental impact of those activities, like by-catch. Before an agency should promote new fishing gear or methods research is important to ensure there are no un-intended environmental tradeoffs. Biodegradable fishing line, modified traps, and buoy lines are examples of gear types that could be studied. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Seas At Risk. 2009. Moving Towards Low Impact Fisheries In Europe Policy Hurdles & Actions.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Boat Movement; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Improved Technology; Invasive Species; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Marine Debris; Physical Damage; Recreational Fishing; Reef Habitat; Resource Use Management; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Marine Zoning: Existing Management Areas The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) uses this zoning category to identify areas that are managed by other agencies where restrictions already exist. These zones delineate the existing jurisdictional authority of other agencies (i.e., State parks, aquatic preserves, sanctuaries, and other restricted areas). Management of these areas within the Sanctuary may require additional regulations or restrictions to adequately protect resources. Any additional management measures will be developed and implemented in coordination with the agency having jurisdictional authority. Their function is not to establish another layer of bureaucracy, but to recognize established management areas and, at a minimum, to complement the existing management programs, ensuring cooperation and coordination with other agencies. Existing Management Areas will be maintained through revising GIS and NOAA charts. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Beaches & Nature Parks; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Boating Activities; Coastal Defense; Contact Uses; Decision Support; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Entertainment & Accommodation Services; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Marine Protected Areas; Permitting & Zoning; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation; Water Transportation
Marine Zoning: Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) Wildlife Management Areas include bird nesting, resting, or feeding areas, turtle nesting beaches, and other sensitive habitats including shallow flats that are important feeding areas for fish. These areas seek to provide protection for endangered/threatened species or their habitats while at the same time providing opportunity for public use. Wildlife Management Areas are achieved through placing and maintaining buoys along zone boundaries; implementing management responsibilities; adjusting existing zone boundaries if needed; evaluating allowable activities within the boundaries and make changes if needed; identifying potential areas that need additional zoning; monitoring the effectiveness of current zones; and revising GIS and NOAA charts. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Beaches & Nature Parks; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Boating Activities; Coastal Defense; Contact Uses; Cultural Services; Decision Support; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Entertainment & Accommodation Services; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Landscape Conservation & Restoration; Marine Birds; Marine Protected Areas; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Sea Turtles; Tourism & Recreation; Trampling; Water Transportation; Wetlands
Marine Zoning: Sanctuary Preservation Areas (SPAs) This is a type of Marine Zoning used by the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). SPAs focus on the protection of shallow, heavily used reefs where conflicts occur between user groups, and where concentrated visitor activity leads to resource degradation. They are designed to enhance the reproductive capabilities of renewable resources, protect areas critical for sustaining and protecting important marine species, and reduce user conflicts in high-use areas. This is accomplished through a prohibition of consumptive activities within these areas. They have been chosen based on the status of important habitat, the ability of a particular area to sustain and protect the habitat, the level of visitor use, and the degree of conflict between consumptive and non-consumptive users. The actual size and location of these zones have been determined by examination of user patterns, aerial photography, and ground-truthing of specific habitats. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Aquaculture; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Artisanal Fishing; Beaches & Nature Parks; Biological Addition; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Boat Movement; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Coastal Defense; Coastal Development; Coastal Engineering; Commercial Fisheries; Commercial Fishing Boats; Complex Habitat & Resources; Cruise Ships; Cultural Services; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Educational & Research Opportunities; Entertainment & Accommodation Services; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Landscape Changes; Large Ships; Live Collection; Marine Protected Areas; Oil & Gas Tankers; Ornamental Jewelry & Art; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Public Administration; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Security; Small Boats; Souvenir & Decorative Trade; Supporting Services; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Trampling; Travel Services & Tour Operators; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage; Water Resources; Water Transportation
Monitor & Research: Research Queen Conch Reproduction and Restoration Inshore Queen Conch may be experiencing reproductive failure. Research on various snails in other parts of the world has shown that snails are susceptible to endocrine disruption caused by various anthropogenic contaminants. This activity will determine the cause of reproductive failure, possibly by endocrine disruption, of queen conch in reef areas. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Applied Chemicals; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Commercial Fisheries; Designate Protected Species; Discharges; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Fishing Sector; Invertebrates; Molluscs; Recreational Fishing; Reef Inhabitants; Snails & Conch; Waterborne Discharges
Public Participation: Assist Seafood Watch Assist Seafood Watch and other sustainable seafood consumption initiatives, in their efforts to educate the public and promote sustainable seafood. The Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL) the Tour Opperators' Iniative (TOI) and The Center for Environmental Leadership in Business (CELB). 2003. A Practical Guide to Good Practice: Managing Environmental Impacts In The Marine Recreation Sector.

SeafoodWatch. 2005. Sustainable Seafood Business Practices. Monteray Bay.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Aquaculture; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Collaboration & Partnering; Commercial Fisheries; Corallivorous Fish; Environmental Education & Outreach; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Food & Raw Materials; Invertebrate Harvest; Large Herbivorous Fish; Live Collection; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Molluscs; Provisioning Services; Recreational Fishing; Sectors Filling Human Needs
Regulatory Review and Development: Evaluate Fishing Gear/Fishing Methods Regulations In most regions there are already regulations that prohibit fishing methods that incorporate explosives, poisons, oil, and bleach. Further investigation may reveal additional methods, materials, or gear that should be prohibited as well. Regulations should aim to increase the use of low-impact gear (#194) in place of more destructive gear and methods. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Cochrane, K.L., editor. 2002. A Fishery Manager's Guidebook. Management Measures and their application. Fisheries Technical Paper 424, FAO, Rome.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Biological Harvest; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Decision Support; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Physical Damage; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Security & Public Administration Policies; Toxics; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Resource Use Management: Fisheries Management Enforcement Marine protected areas and other types of coastal zone management areas have fisheries management policies that must be enforced in addition to the broader Statues, Regulation and Permit Requirements (#91). Illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing is a major problem worldwide. Management area policies must be enforced to have an impact on the fisheries stock. Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Commercial Fisheries; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Marine Protected Areas; Mitigation; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Public Administration; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Security Policies; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Resource Use Management: Develop Regulations for Sponge Fisheries Sponges play a vital role on reefs, providing structure, food and filtration. Depending on the method of removal, this process can be very destructive to other reef fauna and habitat. Research is needed to compare impacts of different sponge fishing methods in different areas. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Biochemical & Genetic Resources; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boring Sponges; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Culture; Cyanobacteria; Educational & Research Opportunities; Encrusting Sponges; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Marine Products; Microorganisms; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics Sources; Physical Damage; Resource Use Management; Scientific Research; Sponges; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage; Tube, Barrel, & Finger Sponges
Resource Use Management: Develop Live Collection Regulations Live collection is often more destructive than capture of food fishes because of the destructive methods used to remove live fish and invertebrates from the reef habitat. These methods include use of cyanide and explosives. Current methods should be assessed and alternatives should be developed or collection prohibited. World Resource Institute International Marinelife Alliance, editor. 1997. Sullied Seas. WRI, Washington D.C.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Biochemical & Genetic Resources; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Educational & Research Opportunities; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Marine Products; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics Sources; Physical Damage; Resource Use Management; Scientific Research; Sponges; Toxics; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage; Wholesale & Retail Trade
Resource Use Management: Seasonal Fisheries and Harvesting Finfish and shellfish stocks may be more or less susceptible to fishing pressures during certain times of the year. This may be due to seasonality of recruitment and/or changes in food/predation pressures. If fishing restrictions may be more successful if this seasonality is taken into consideration and fishing pressure adjusted accordingly. Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Artisanal Fishing; Biochemical & Genetic Resources; Biological Harvest; Bivalves; Commercial Fisheries; Corallivorous Fish; Decision Support; Echinoderms; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertivorous Fish; Large Herbivorous Fish; Live Collection; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Products; Molluscs; Octopus & Squid; Permitting & Zoning; Piscivorous Fish; Planktivorous Fish; Provisioning Services; Recreational Fishing; Small Herbivorous Fish; Snails & Conch; Sponges; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Resource Use Management: Fisheries Catch Quotas Quotas designate the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) allocated to an operating unit such as a country, a vessel, a company or an individual fisherman (individual quota) depending on the system of allocation. Quotas may or may not be transferable, inheritable, and tradable. While generally used to allocate total allowable catch, quotas could be used also to allocate fishing effort or biomass. Seas At Risk. 2009. Moving Towards Low Impact Fisheries In Europe Policy Hurdles & Actions.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Apex Fish Predators; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Bivalves; Boat Movement; Boating Activities; Commercial Fisheries; Commercial Fishing Boats; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Raw Materials; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertivorous Fish; Large Herbivorous Fish; Live Collection; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Products; Molluscs; Octopus & Squid; Piscivorous Fish; Planktivorous Fish; Provisioning Services; Recreational Fishing; Snails & Conch; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage

Laws

Legal Citation Purpose of Law Management Organization Database Topics
Amendment to the U.S. Caribbean Fishery Management Plans, Code of Federal Regulations § 600 and 622. NMFS issues this final rule to implement a comprehensive amendment prepared by the Caribbean Fishery Management Council (Council) to amend its Reef Fish, Spiny Lobster, Queen Conch, and Coral Fishery Management Plans (FMPs). The comprehensive amendment is designed to ensure the FMPs are fully compliant with the provisions of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (Magnuson-Stevens Act). This final rule redefines the fishery management units for the FMPs; establishes seasonal closures; imposes gear restrictions and requirements; revises requirements for marking pots and traps; and prohibits the filleting of fish at sea. In addition, the comprehensive amendment establishes biological reference points and stock status criteria; establishes rebuilding schedules and strategies to end overfishing and rebuild overfished stocks; provides for standardized collection of bycatch data; minimizes bycatch and bycatch mortality to the extent practicable; designates essential fish habitat (EFH) and EFH habitat areas of particular concern (HAPCs); and minimizes adverse impacts on such habitat to the extent practicable. The intended effect of this final rule is to achieve optimum yield in the fisheries and provide social and economic benefits associated with maintaining healthy stocks.

Application to Coral Reefs:Protects coral reefs in the USVI and Puerto Rico from overfishing reef resources, specifically reef fish, lobster, and queen conch taking. It establishs seasonal closures, restrictions on the gear used, lists areas of specific biological reference points, and has a schedule and strategy for restocking fishery resources.

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Marine Fisheries Service

Jurisdiction:
US Virgin Islands; Puerto Rico 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Commercial Fisheries; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates; Recreational Fishing; Reef Inhabitants
Biscayne Bay Aquatic Preserve, 18-18 Florida Administrative Code. 18-18.001 Intent. (1) The Biscayne Bay Aquatic Preserve, the boundaries of which are fully described in Rule 18-18.002, F.A.C., was established for the purpose of preserving and enhancing Biscayne Bay and all natural waterways tidally connected to the bay in an essentially natural condition so that its biological and aesthetic values may endure for the enjoyment of future generations. (2) These rules shall apply to all lands public and private within the boundaries of the preserve. However, privately owned uplands shall be excluded from these rules except as otherwise provided for herein. (3) In promulgating and implementing these rules, it is the intent of the Department to construe the provisions of Sections 258.397 and 258.35 through 258.46, F.S., together and to apply the more stringent statutory provisions for the maintenance of the preserve. (4) The preserve shall be administered and managed in accordance with the following goals: (a) To preserve, protect, and enhance Biscayne Bay and all natural waterways tidally connected to the bay by reasonable regulation of human activity within the preserve through the development and implementation of a comprehensive management program; (b) To protect and enhance the waters of the preserve so that the public may continue to enjoy the traditional recreational uses of those waters such as swimming, boating and fishing; (c) To coordinate with federal, state, and local agencies to aid in carrying out the intent of the legislature in creating the preserve; (d) To use applicable federal, state, and local management programs, which are compatible with the intent and provisions of the Act and these rules, to assist in managing the preserve; (e) To encourage activities that protect or enhance the biological and aesthetic values of the preserve, including but not limited to the modification of existing manmade conditions towards their natural condition, when reviewing applications or developing and implementing management plans for the preserve; (f) To preserve and promote indigenous life forms and habitats including but not limited to sponges, soft corals, hard corals, seagrasses, mangroves, mud flats, marine reptiles, game and non-game fish species, marine mammals, tropical marine invertebrates, birds and shellfish; (g) To acquire additional title interests in land wherever such acquisitions would serve to protect or enhance the biological or aesthetic values of the preserve.

Application to Coral Reefs:Biscayne Bay Aquatic Preserve protection of water quality will contribute to a lowering of contaminants leaving the preserve on tides and thus limiting the contaminants that reach off-shore ecosystems including the FKNMS and the reef system within the sanctuary.

Legislative Actions:

Comments:This chapter establishes the rules to protect the Biscayne Bay Aquatic Preserve, which was established for the purpose of preserving and enhancing Biscayne Bay and all natural waterways tidally connected to the bay in an essentially natural condition so that its biological and aesthetic values may endure for the enjoyment of future generations. 		Florida State Department of Environmental Protection

Jurisdiction:
Designated Marine Areas 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Ballast Discharge; Boat Movement; Coastal Development; Docks & Marinas; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Environmental Education & Outreach; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Hydrologic Management; Landuse Management; Mangroves; Marine Birds; Marine Debris; Nutrients; Point Source Discharges; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Seawater Flow; Sediment; Sewage Treatment; Small Boats; Waste Management Policies; Wastewater Discharge
Chapter 1: Wildlife including protected areas, 12 Virgin Islands Code. Regulates hunting, including for migratory birds, wildlife restoration, establishes and regulates wildlife and marine sactuaries and game preserves.

Application to Coral Reefs:The coral reefs of the US Virgin Islands are within the boundaries off the marine sanctuaries and therefore have the same protection that marine sanctuaries have. Special licenses are required for scientific investigation and for collectors. In wildlife and marine sanctuaries, except under proper permit, taking or posessing any bird, fish, or other wildlife is illegal. Discharge of a firearm or release of arrows (spearfishing) in wildlife or marine sanctuaries is illegal. No form of waste can be thrown, placed or deposited in a wildlife or marine sanctuary.

Legislative Actions:The Commissioner or any USVI resident can commence a civil action. Civil penalties for violators are not to exceed $50,000 per day. Any knowingly or negligently discharging polluants can be crimimnally punished with a fine of not less than $5,000 nor more

Comments:Commissioner of Planning and Natural Resources can designate and establish wildlife and marine sanctuaries, and accept monitary and animal donations from the United States. 		US Virgin Islands, Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Protection

Jurisdiction:
US Virgin Islands 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Arthropods; Bivalves; Complex Habitat & Resources; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Fish; Invertebrates; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Mangroves; Marine Protected Areas; Marine Vertebrates; Molluscs; Octopus & Squid; Recreational Opportunities; Reef Inhabitants; Reef Life; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Snails & Conch; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Wetlands
Chapter 2: Protection of indigenous, endangered and threatened fish, wildlife and plants, 12 Virgin Islands Code. Regulates activities, including scientific research, that could affect indigenous species and species considered at risk (threatened) or endangered, establishes species of special concern and habitats that should be protected, requires permits for trimming mangroves

Application to Coral Reefs:It is illegal to take or posses "live rock" which is defined as dead or live coral. It is illegaal to cut all three species of mangrove trees. Forbidding the takeing of coral directly protects coral species. Not cutting mangraoves will aid in sediment control and the removal of nutrients that could enter coral reef areas. The Commission can designate habitats for listed threatened or endangered species.

Legislative Actions:It is illegal to take or posses "live rock" which is defined as dead or live coral. It is illegaal to cut all three species of mangrove trees. Forbidding the takeing of coral directly protects coral species. Not cutting mangraoves will aid in sediment control and the removal of nutrients that could enter coral reef areas. The Commission can designate habitats for listed threatened or endangered species.

Comments: 		US Virgin Islands, Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Protection

Jurisdiction:
US Virgin Islands 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Coral; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Mangroves; Ornamental Jewelry & Art; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Endangered and Threatened Species; Critical Habitat for Threatened Elkhorn and Staghorn Corals, 73 Federal Register § 6895 (2008). To make it unlawful, to import or export the species into or from the US, to take the species within the US or territorial seas of the US, to take the species upon the high seas, to possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship by any means whatsoever the species taken in violation, to deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship in interstate or foreign commerce, by any means whatsoever and in the course of a commercial activity the species, to sell or offer for sale in interstate or foreign commerce the species, to violate any regulation pertaining to the species.

Application to Coral Reefs:The deignation of Acropa palmeta and Acropa cervicornis as threathened species will allow the species advantages in recovery. The designation protects the reef habitat because the species must have the reef to reproduce and grow.

Legislative Actions:Section 11 of the ESA provides civil and criminal penalties for a violation of the ESA.

Comments: 		NOAA

Jurisdiction:
US Coral Reefs; US Territorial Waters; US Virgin Islands; Puerto Rico 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Collaboration & Partnering; Environmental Education & Outreach; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Recreational Opportunities; Skeletal Coral; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Endangered and Threatened Species; Critical Habitat for Threatened Elkhorn and Staghorn Corals; Final Rule, 73 Federal Register § 72210. We, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), issue a final rule designating critical habitat for elkhorn (Acropora palmata) and staghorn (A. cervicornis) corals, which we listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (ESA), on May 9, 2006. Four specific areas are designated: the Florida area, which comprises approximately 1,329 square miles (3,442 sq km) of marine habitat; the Puerto Rico area, which comprises approximately 1,383 square miles (3,582 sq km) of marine habitat; the St. John/St. Thomas area, which comprises approximately 121 square miles (313 sq km) of marine habitat; and the St. Croix area, which comprises approximately 126 square miles (326 sq km) of marine habitat. We are excluding one military site, comprising approximately 5.5 square miles (14.3 sq km), because of national security impacts.

Application to Coral Reefs:The law protects coral habitat for elkhorn and staghorn coral which strenghtens their protection in the FKNMS, Puerto Rico, and US Virgin Islands.

Legislative Actions:

Comments:the National Marine
Fisheries Service (NMFS), issue a final
rule designating critical habitat for
elkhorn (Acropora palmata) and
staghorn (A. cervicornis) corals, which
we listed as threatened under the
Endangered Species Act of 1973, as
amended (ESA), on May 9, 2006. Four
specific areas are designated: the Florida
area, which comprises approximately
1,329 square miles (3,442 sq km) of
marine habitat; the Puerto Rico area,
which comprises approximately 1,383
square miles (3,582 sq km) of marine
habitat; the St. John/St. Thomas area,
which comprises approximately 121
square miles (313 sq km) of marine
habitat; and the St. Croix area, which
comprises approximately 126 square
miles (326 sq km) of marine habitat. We
are excluding one military site,
comprising approximately 5.5 square
miles (14.3 sq km), because of national
security impacts. 		National Marine Fisheries Service

Jurisdiction:
US Coral Reefs; US Territorial Waters; US Territories; US State Waters; Designated Marine Areas; US Virgin Islands 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Collaboration & Partnering; Commercial Fisheries; Commercial Fishing Boats; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Proclamation No. 7392, The Buck Island Reef National Park, 66 Federal Register 7335-7336 (2001). 18,000 acres in the US Virgin Islands

Application to Coral Reefs:The Proclamation expanded the original momument thus protecting additional coral reefs within the monument boundaries.

Legislative Actions:

Comments:Together, Proclamation 7399 and 7392 designated a total of 30,843 marine acres in the United States Virgin Isalnds as monuments. 		US Virgin Islands, Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Protection

Jurisdiction:
US Virgin Islands 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Commercial Fishing Boats; Cruise Ships; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Economic Markets & Policies; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Invertebrate Harvest; Mangroves; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
The Sustainable Fisheries Act, 23 §§ 104-297 (1996). To amend the Magnuson Fisheries Conservation and Management Act to authorize appropriations, to provide for sustainable fisheries, and for other purposes.

Application to Coral Reefs:The law recogonizes that direct and indirect habitat losses have resulted in a diminshed capacity to support existing fish levels. Habitat considerations should receive increased attention for conservation and management of fishery resources in the United States. Therefore, the Act encourages, though not indirectly, the protection of coral reefs.

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Marine Fisheries Service

Jurisdiction:
US Federal Waters 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Commercial Fisheries; Economic Markets & Policies; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Mangroves; Seagrasses

Jump to main content.