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ReefLink Database

Designated Uses

Designated Uses

Designated uses are a state's concise statements of its management objectives and expectations for each of the individual surface waters under its jurisdiction.

CMap

Biological Addition refers to anthropogenic inputs of a biological nature into the reef ecosystem, including artificial habitat, domestic animal waste, supplemental feeding, and escape or release of non-native species. Biological Harvest is the collection of living things from the ecosystem for recreation, consumption, or sale of marine products. Boating activities include movement in coastal waters and into ports that can lead to anchor drops or vessel groundings, or damage from trawling and other fishing gear. Boating Regulations are restrictions placed on boating activities to promote safety for boaters and the natural environment, and can include mooring buoys, registration and licensing, and speed limits. Civil Engineering and Construction specializes in the design and construction of infrastructure, including buildings and homes, roads, utility lines, and ports. Contact Uses, such as biological additions, physical damage, and biological harvesting, are activities in which humans create pressures through direct contact with the ecosystem. Cultural services are the nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, recreational opportunities, aesthetic experiences, sense of place, and educational and research opportunities. Culture sectors contribute to the social, emotional, and intellectual well-being of the community. Designated uses are a state's concise statements of its management objectives and expectations for each of the individual surface waters under its jurisdiction. Dredging regulations are decisions or policies to control the location or intensity of physically damaging activities such as dredging, draining, or filling. Dredging is the process of excavating material from an area to maintain ship channels and harbors for safe navigation. Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems . Fishing is the activity of catching fish for recreational, commercial, or artesanal purposes using any of a variety of fishing gear, including nets, spear guns, or hook and line. Fish are cold-blooded aquatic vertebrates that breathe through gills and usually have scales. Fishing & harvesting management controls the activities which harvest fish and invertebrates, including commercial and recreational fishing. The Fishing Sector includes the harvesting of fish for food and recreation. The Food and Raw Materials sector includes groups that harvest natural resources from the earth, including agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, forestry, mining, and the oil and gas industry. An Invertebrate is any animal that lacks a backbone. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are Any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, tribal, territorial, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein. The Reef Ecosystem includes a suite of abiotic variables that form the physical and chemical environment. Physical Damage to reef habitat and wetlands can occur from vessel groundings, dredging, trampling, boat movement, anchor drops, trawling, and fishing gear. Provisioning services are the products or ecosystem goods obtained from ecosystems, including seafood, genetic and biochemical resources, pharmaceuticals, ornamental resources, and water resources. The state of the Reef Ecosystem is the condition, in terms of quantity and quality, of the abiotic and biotic components including physical, chemical, and biological variables. Reef Habitat is the abundance, distribution, and condition of the benthic components of the reef ecosystem. Reef Inhabitants are all of the motile components of the reef ecosystem, including fish, invertebrates, marine reptiles and mammals, and are quantified by their abundance, distribution, and condition. Reef Life is the abundance, distribution, and condition of the biological components of the coral reef ecosystem. Regulating Services are benefits obtained from ecosystem processes that regulate the environment, including erosion regulation, natural hazard regulation, and climate regulation. Resource use management pertains to responses to regulate or limit contact activities that may directly impact coastal species through harvesting or physical damage. Responses are actions taken by groups or individuals in society and government to prevent, compensate, ameliorate or adapt to changes in Ecosystem Services or their perceived value. Socio-Economic Drivers include the sectors that fulfill human needs for Food & Raw Materials, Water, Shelter, Health, Culture, and Security, and the Infrastructure that supports the sectors. Special use permitting is a documentation mechanism to allow activities that might otherwise be prohibited (e.g,, collection of species for scientific research in a protected area). Supporting services are ecological processes that indirectly benefit humans by maintaining a functional ecosystem for the production of other ecosystem goods and services. Tourism & Recreation sectors operate facilities and provide services for the varied cultural, entertainment, and recreational interests of residents and tourists. Trampling occurs when humans walk on, kick, bump into, or touch corals. The Transportation Sector involves comprises all modes of transportation (Aviation, Maritime, Mass Transit, Highway, Freight Rail, and Pipeline) The Transportation Systems Sector is segmented into six key subsectors, or modes, which operate independently within both a regulated and non-regulated environment, yet are also highly interdependent. A wetland is an area of land whose soil is saturated with moisture either permanently or seasonally.

CMap Description

A change in the provision of ecosystem services, or a desire to improve provision of ecosystem services, may elicit responses to reduce or manage contact uses that include harvesting or physical damage to reef species. States identify appropriate uses for waterbodies by taking into consideration the use and value of the water body for public water supply, for protection of fish, shellfish, and wildlife, and for recreational, agricultural, industrial, and navigational purposes. In designating uses for a water body, States examine the suitability of a water body for the uses based on the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the water body, its geographical setting and scenic qualities, and economic considerations. Each water body does not necessarily require a unique set of uses. Instead, the characteristics necessary to support a use can be identified so that water bodies having those characteristics can be grouped together as supporting particular uses.Many of the same socio-economic sectors that create pressures through contact uses benefit from goods and services provided by the reef, including recreational opportunities and seafood.

Citations

Citation Year Study Location Study Type Database Topics
Bell, CM; Needham, MD; Szuster, BW. 2011. Congruence Among Encounters, Norms, Crowding, and Management in a Marine Protected Area. Environmental Management 48:499-513. 2011 Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Marine Protected Areas; Tourism & Recreation
Bishop, R. C., D. J. Chapman, B. J. Kanninen, J. A. Krosnick, B. Leeworthy, and N. F. Meade. 2011. Total Ecolonic Value for Protecting and Restoring Hawaiian Coral Reef Ecosystems: Final Report. NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP 16, NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Silver Spring, MD, USA. 2011 Florida; US Pacific & Hawaii Review Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Housing; Internet & Telecommunications; Marine Protected Areas; Monetary Valuation; Valuation
Fang, GC; Nam, DH; Basu, N. 2011. Mercury and selenium content of Taiwanese seafood. Food Additives & Contaminants Part B-surveillance 4:212-217. 2011 US Pacific & Hawaii; Taiwan Apex Fish Predators; Fish; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Piscivorous Fish; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Toxics
Forrester, GE; O'Connell-Rodwell, C; Baily, P; Forrester, LM; Giovannini, S; Harmon, L; Karis, R; Krumholz, J; Rodwell, T; Jarecki, L. 2011. Evaluating Methods for Transplanting Endangered Elkhorn Corals in the Virgin Islands. Restoration Ecology 19:299-306. 2011 South & Central America; US Virgin Islands; Caribbean Algae; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Stony Coral; Tourism & Recreation
Hannak, JS; Kompatscher, S; Stachowitsch, M; Herler, J. 2011. Snorkelling and trampling in shallow-water fringing reefs: Risk assessment and proposed management strategy. Journal of Environmental Management 92:2723-2733. 2011 Cuba; Egypt Model; Index or Indicator Banks, Credit, & Securities; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Sediment; Stony Coral; Substrate; Tourism & Recreation; Trampling
Lorenzo, B; Ilaria, V; Sergio, R; Stefano, S; Giovanni, S. 2011. Involvement of recreational scuba divers in emblematic species monitoring: The case of Mediterranean red coral (Corallium rubrum). Journal for Nature Conservation 19:312-318. 2011 Cuba Field Study & Monitoring Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Tourism & Recreation
Murugan, A; Dhanya, S; Sarcar, AB; Naganathan, V; Rajagopal, S; Balasubramanian, T. 2011. Fishery biology, demography of three spotted seahorse, Hippocampus trimaculatus inhabiting Gulf of Mannar region, Southeast coast of India. Indian journal of GeoMarine Sciences 40:411-423. 2011 India Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Seagrasses; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Rouphael, AB; Abdulla, A; Said, Y. 2011. A framework for practical and rigorous impact monitoring by field managers of marine protected areas. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 180:557-572. 2011 Australia; Egypt Review; Field Study & Monitoring Banks, Credit, & Securities; Collaboration & Partnering; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Marine Protected Areas; Mitigation; Pathogens
Whatmough, S; Van Putten, I; Chin, A. 2011. From hunters to nature observers: a record of 53 years of diver attitudes towards sharks and rays and marine protected areas. Marine and Freshwater Research 62:755-763. 2011 Australia; Cuba Field Study & Monitoring Apex Fish Predators; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Marine Protected Areas; Tourism & Recreation
Beharry-Borg, N. and R. Scarpa. 2010. Valuing quality changes in Caribbean coastal waters for heterogeneous beach visitors. Ecological Economics 69:1124-1139. 2010 South & Central America; Tobago; Caribbean Model Banks, Credit, & Securities; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Health Policies; Monetary Valuation; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Valuation
Claudet, J., P. Lenfant, and M. Schrimm. 2010. Snorkelers impact on fish communities and algae in a temperate marine protected area. Biodiversity and Conservation 19:1649-1658. 2010 Index or Indicator Algae; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fish; Marine Protected Areas; Octocoral; Tourism & Recreation; Trampling
Dumas, P., H. Jimenez, M. Leopold, G. Petro, and R. Jimmy. 2010. Effectiveness of village-based marine reserves on reef invertebrates in Emau, Vanuatu. Environmental Conservation 37:364-372. 2010 US Pacific & Hawaii; Vanuatu Field Study & Monitoring; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Snails & Conch
Edgar, G. J., P. R. Last, N. S. Barrett, K. Gowlett-Holmes, M. Driessen, and P. Mooney. 2010. Conservation of natural wilderness values in the Port Davey marine and estuarine protected area, south-western Tasmania. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 20:297-311. 2010 Global; Australia Boating Activities; Climate; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Invertebrates; Marine Protected Areas; Nutrients; Salinity; Sediment; Sponges; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Tourism & Recreation
Godoy, N., S. Gelcich, J. A. Vasquez, and J. C. Castilla. 2010. Spearfishing to depletion: evidence from temperate reef fishes in Chile. Ecological Applications 20:1504-1511. 2010 Cuba Index or Indicator Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Hopkins, G. A. and B. M. Forrest. 2010. Challenges associated with pre-border management of biofouling on oil rigs. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60:1924-1929. 2010 Australia Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Oil & Gas Rigs
Landry, M. S. and C. T. Taggart. 2010. Turtle watching conservation guidelines: green turtle (Chelonia mydas) tourism in nearshore coastal environments. Biodiversity and Conservation 19:305-312. 2010 Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Sea Turtles; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation; Travel Services & Tour Operators; Whales & Dolphins
Linares, C. and D. F. Doak. 2010. Forecasting the combined effects of disparate disturbances on the persistence of long-lived gorgonians: a case study of Paramuricea clavata. Marine Ecology Progress Series 402:59-68. 2010 Global; Study Location Model Climate; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Octocoral
Mondal, N. C., V. S. Singh, S. C. Puranik, and V. P. Singh. 2010. Trace element concentration in groundwater of Pesarlanka Island, Krishna Delta, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 163:215-227. 2010 India Drinking Water Supply; Sediment; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Munoz, R. C., M. L. Burton, K. J. Brennan, and R. O. Parker. 2010. Reproduction, Habitat Utilization, And Movements Of Hogfish (Lachnolaimus Maximus) In The Florida Keys, Usa: Comparisons From Fished Versus Unfished Habitats. Bulletin of Marine Science 86:93-116. 2010 Florida; Cuba Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Invertivorous Fish
Pierce, S. J., A. Mendez-Jimenez, K. Collins, M. Rosero-Caicedo, and A. Monadjem. 2010. Developing a Code of Conduct for whale shark interactions in Mozambique. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 20:782-788. 2010 Global; Mozambique Apex Fish Predators; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Tourism & Recreation
Pittman, S. J., C. F. G. Jeffrey, R. Clark, K. Woody, B. D. Herlach, C. Caldow, M. E. Monaco, and R. Appledoorn. 2010. Coral reef ecosystems of Reserva Natural de La Parguera (Puerto Rico): spatial and temporal patterns in fish and benthic communities (2001-2007). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD. 2010 South & Central America; Puerto Rico; Caribbean Field Study & Monitoring Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Collaboration & Partnering; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fish; Fishing Sector; Landscape Conservation & Restoration; Mangroves; Marine Debris; Marine Protected Areas; Tourism & Recreation
Poonian, C., P. Z. R. Davis, and C. K. McNaughton. 2010. Impacts of Recreational Divers on Palauan Coral Reefs and Options for Management. Pacific Science 64:557-565. 2010 Cuba; Palau Field Study & Monitoring Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Physical Damage; Stony Coral; Tourism & Recreation
Richlen, M. L., S. L. Morton, E. A. Jamali, A. Rajan, and D. M. Anderson. 2010. The catastrophic 2008-2009 red tide in the Arabian gulf region, with observations on the identification and phylogeny of the fish-killing dinoflagellate Cochlodinium polykrikoides. Harmful Algae 9:163-172. 2010 Global; South & Central America; Puerto Rico; Malaysia; United Arab Emirates; Oman; Mexico Aquaculture; Ballast Discharge; Discharges; Drinking Water Supply; Fish; Fishing Sector; Nutrients; Tourism & Recreation; Water
Smith, K., M. Scarr, and C. Scarpaci. 2010. Grey Nurse Shark (Carcharias taurus) Diving Tourism: Tourist Compliance and Shark Behaviour at Fish Rock, Australia. Environmental Management 46:699-710. 2010 Australia Field Study & Monitoring Apex Fish Predators; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fish; Tourism & Recreation
Wielgus, J., A. Balmford, T. B. Lewis, C. Mora, and L. R. Gerber. 2010. Coral reef quality and recreation fees in marine protected areas. Conservation Letters 3:38-44. 2010 Global; Cuba Banks, Credit, & Securities; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Funding & Donations; Funding & Incentives; Marine Protected Areas; Monetary Valuation; Tourism & Recreation
Brewer, T. D., J. E. Cinner, A. Green, and J. M. Pandolfi. 2009. Thresholds and multiple scale interaction of environment, resource use, and market proximity on reef fishery resources in the Solomon Islands. Biological Conservation 142:1797-1807. 2009 Solomon Islands Index or Indicator Climate; Corallivorous Fish; Fishing Sector; Landscape Conservation & Restoration; Large Herbivorous Fish; Piscivorous Fish; Small Herbivorous Fish; Stony Coral
Di Franco, A., M. Milazzo, P. Baiata, A. Tomasello, and R. Chemello. 2009. Scuba diver behaviour and its effects on the biota of a Mediterranean marine protected area. Environmental Conservation 36:32-40. 2009 Cuba Algae; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Marine Protected Areas; Substrate
Dodds, W. K., W. A. Bouska, J. L. Eitzmann, T. J. Pilger, K. L. Pitts, A. J. Riley, J. T. Schloesser, and D. J. Thornbrugh. 2009. Eutrophication of U.S. freshwaters: analysis of potential economic damages. Environmental Science and Technology 43:13-19. 2009 Drinking Water Supply; Fish; Nutrients; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Tourism & Recreation
Gonzalez-Gandara, C., A. Patino-Garcia, U. Asis-Anastasio, A. Serrano, and P. Gomez. 2009. Checklist of marine sponges from Tuxpan Reef, Veracruz, Mexico. Revista Mexicana de Biodiversidad 80:1-5. 2009 South & Central America; Cuba; Mexico Field Study & Monitoring Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Sponges
Kragt, M. E., P. C. Roebeling, and A. Ruijs. 2009. Effects of Great Barrier Reef degradation on recreational reef-trip demand: A contingent behaviour approach. Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 53:213-229. 2009 Australia Model Agriculture; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fish; Marine Protected Areas; Non-point Source Runoff; Nutrients; Sediment; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Tourism & Recreation
Kundzewicz, Z. W. and P. Doll. 2009. Will groundwater ease freshwater stress under climate change? Hydrological Sciences Journal-journal Des Sciences Hydrologiques 54:665-675. 2009 Global Climate; Drinking Water Supply; Non-point Source Runoff; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Water; Water Depth & Sea Level
Leopold, M., A. Cakacaka, S. Meo, J. Sikolia, and D. Lecchini. 2009. Evaluation of the effectiveness of three underwater reef fish monitoring methods in Fiji. Biodiversity and Conservation 16-Jan. 2009 US Pacific & Hawaii; Fiji Field Study & Monitoring Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fish; Social Organizations
Luna, B., C. V. Perez, and J. L. Sanchez-Lizaso. 2009. Benthic impacts of recreational divers in a Mediterranean Marine Protected Area. ICES Journal of Marine Science 66:517-523. 2009 Cuba Field Study & Monitoring Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Marine Protected Areas; Sediment; Tourism & Recreation
Quicoy, A. R. and N. D. Briones. 2009. Beach Carrying Capacity Assessment of Coastal Ecotourism in Calatagan, Batangas, Phlippines. Journal Of Environmental Science And Management 12:11-26. 2009 Florida Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Beaches & Nature Parks; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Tourism & Recreation; Waste Management; Waste Management Policies
Roelfsema, C. M., S. R. Phinn, N. Udy, and P. Maxwell. 2009. An Integrated Field and Remote Sensing Approach for Mapping Seagrass Cover, Moreton Bay, Australia. Journal of Spatial Science 54:45-62. 2009 Australia Field Study & Monitoring; GIS & Maps; Remote Sensing Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses
UNCWI. 2009. Healthy Watersheds through Healthy Forests. 2009 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Collaboration & Partnering; Drinking Water Supply; Forestry; Funding & Donations; Funding & Incentives; Landscape Conservation & Restoration; Landuse Management; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Uyarra, M. C., A. R. Watkinson, and I. M. Cote. 2009. Managing dive tourism for the sustainable use of coral reefs: Validating diver perceptions of attractive site features. Environmental Management 43:16-Jan. 2009 South & Central America; Caribbean Complex Habitat & Resources; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fish; Sea Turtles; Stony Coral; Tourism & Recreation
2008. DRAFT PROPOSED REVISIONS TO: U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS WATER QUALITY STANDARDS. Chapter 7. Water Pollution Control, Subchapter 186. Water Quality Standards for Waters of the Virgin Islands, US Virgin Islands. 2008 US Virgin Islands Index or Indicator Biocriteria; Designated Uses; Discharges; Irrigation; Mangroves; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria; Seagrasses; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Wetlands
Asafu-Adjaye, J. and S. Tapsuwan. 2008. A contingent valuation study of scuba diving benefits: Case study in Mu Ko Similan Marine National Park, Thailand. Tourism Management 29:1122-1130. 2008 Cuba; Thailand Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Marine Protected Areas; Monetary Valuation; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Valuation
Bradley, P., W. Davis, W. Fisher, H. Bell, V. Chan, C. LoBue, and W. Wiltse. 2008. Biological criteria for protection of U.S. coral reefs. Pages 1078-1082 in Proceedings of the 11th International Coral Reef Symposium. Ft. Lauderdale, Florida. 2008 Field Study & Monitoring; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Biocriteria; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Collaboration & Partnering; Designated Uses; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria
Chang, Y.C., F.W. Hong, and M.T. Lee. 2008. A system dynamic based DSS for sustainable coral reef management in Kenting coastal zone, Taiwan. Ecological Modelling 211:153-168. 2008 Taiwan Model; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Decision Support; Fish; Sewage Treatment; Stony Coral; Tourism & Recreation; Wastewater Discharge
Drew, C. A. and D. B. Eggleston. 2008. Juvenile fish densities in Florida Keys mangroves correlate with landscape characteristics. Marine Ecology Progress Series 362:233-243. 2008 Florida Model; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Complex Habitat & Resources; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fish; Landscape Conservation & Restoration; Mangroves
Eggleston, D. B., D. M. Parsons, G. T. Kellison, G. R. Plaia, and E. G. Johnson. 2008. Functional response of sport divers to lobsters with application to fisheries management. Ecological Applications 18:258-272. 2008 South & Central America; Florida; Cuba; Caribbean Index or Indicator Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Commercial Fisheries; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Gunderson, D. R., A. M. Parma, R. Hilborn, J. M. Cope, D. L. Fluharty, M. L. Miller, R. D. Vetter, S. S. Heppell, and H. G. Greene. 2008. The challenge of managing nearshore rocky reef resources. Fisheries 33:172-179. 2008 Field Study & Monitoring Commercial Fisheries; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fishing Sector; Invertebrates; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Hasler, H. and J. A. Ott. 2008. Diving down the reefs? Intensive diving tourism threatens the reefs of the northern Red Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin 56:1788-1794. 2008 Cuba; Egypt Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Education & Outreach; Fish; Recreational Opportunities; Sediment; Small Herbivorous Fish; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation
Leujak, W. and R. F. G. Ormond. 2008. Quantifying acceptable levels of visitor use on Red Sea reef flats. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 18:930-944. 2008 Egypt Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Corallivorous Fish; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Skeletal Coral; Stony Coral; Tourism & Recreation; Trampling
Lloret, J. and V. Riera. 2008. Evolution of a mediterranean coastal zone: Human impacts on the marine environment of cape creus. Environmental Management 42:977-988. 2008 Cuba Boating Activities; Climate; Commercial Fisheries; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Fishing; Seagrasses; Tourism & Recreation
Omori, M., K. Iwao, and M. Tamura. 2008. Growth of transplanted Acropora tenuis 2 years after egg culture. Coral Reefs 27:165. 2008 Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Stony Coral; Substrate; Tourism & Recreation; Water Depth & Sea Level; Wetland & Reef Restoration
Poonian, C. N. S. 2008. The influence of protected area management on the status of coral reefs at Misali Island, Tanzania following the 1998 bleaching event in the western Indian Ocean. African Journal of Ecology 46:471-478. 2008 Indian Ocean; Cuba; Tanzania; India Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Landuse Management; Marine Protected Areas; Small Herbivorous Fish; Substrate
Santos, L. N., F. G. Araujo, and D. S. Brotto. 2008. Artificial structures as tools for fish habitat rehabilitation in a neotropical reservoir. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 18:896-908. 2008 Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Artificial Habitat; Complex Habitat & Resources; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invasive Species
Wong, C.-K., P. Hung, K. L. H. Lee, T. Mok, T. Chung, and K.-M. Kam. 2008. Features of ciguatera fish poisoning cases in Hong Kong 2004-2007. Biomedical and Environmental Sciences 21:521-527. 2008 South & Central America; US Pacific & Hawaii; India; China; Caribbean Review; Lab Study Fish
Worachananant, S., R. W. Carter, M. Hockings, and P. Reopanichkul. 2008. Managing the impacts of SCUBA divers on Thailand's coral reefs. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 16:645-663. 2008 Cuba; Thailand Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Substrate; Tourism & Recreation
Ramos, J., M. N. Santos, D. Whitmarsh, and C. C. Monteiro. 2007. Stakeholder perceptions regarding the environmental and socio-economic impacts of the Algarve artificial reefs. Hydrobiologia 580:181-191. 2007 Europe Index or Indicator; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Artificial Habitat; Commercial Fisheries; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fishing Sector; Funding & Incentives
Richardson, K. E. 2007. Diving expedition medicine - The Coral Cay Conservation experience. Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine 37:189-197. 2007 Review Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Medical Care; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics
Roman, G. S. J., P. Dearden, and R. Rollins. 2007. Application of zoning and \limits of acceptable change\" to manage snorkelling tourism". Environmental Management 39:819-830. 2007 Thailand Field Study & Monitoring; Index or Indicator Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fishing Sector; Landuse Management; Marine Protected Areas; Tourism & Recreation; Trampling
Rouphael, A. B. and M. Hanafy. 2007. An alternative management framework to limit the impact of SCUBA divers on coral assemblages. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 15:91-103. 2007 Cuba Review; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Marine Protected Areas; Storms & Hurricanes
Seaman, W. 2007. Artificial habitats and the restoration of degraded marine ecosystems and fisheries. Hydrobiologia 580:143-155. 2007 South & Central America; US Pacific & Hawaii; US East Coast (NC, SC, GA); Atlantic Ocean; Cuba; Pacific Ocean; Japan; Mexico Review; Field Study & Monitoring; Model Aquaculture; Artificial Habitat; Commercial Fisheries; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Mitigation; Nutrients; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Sorice, M. G., C.-O. Oh, and R. B. Ditton. 2007. Managing scuba divers to meet ecological goals for coral reef conservation. Ambio 36:316-322. 2007 Cuba Model Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Marine Protected Areas; Tourism & Recreation
Stolk, P., K. Markwell, and J. M. Jenkins. 2007. Artificial reefs as recreational scuba diving resources: A critical review of research. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 15:331-350. 2007 Cuba Review; Model; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Artificial Habitat; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation
Sutton, S. G. and S. L. Bushnell. 2007. Socio-economic aspects of artificial reefs: Considerations for the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Ocean and Coastal Management 50:829-846. 2007 Australia Review Artificial Habitat; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Marine Protected Areas; Monetary Valuation; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Turner, R. A., A. Cakacaka, N. A. J. Graham, N. V. C. Polunin, M. S. Pratchett, S. M. Stead, and S. K. Wilson. 2007. Declining reliance on marine resources in remote South Pacific societies: Ecological versus socio-economic drivers. Coral Reefs 26:997-1008. 2007 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia; Fiji Climate; Finfish Harvest; Housing; Seastars; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Uyarra, M. C. and I. M. Cote. 2007. The quest for cryptic creatures: Impacts of species-focused recreational diving on corals. Biological Conservation 136:77-84. 2007 Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fish; Stony Coral; Tourism & Recreation
Davenport, J. and J. L. Davenport. 2006. The impact of tourism and personal leisure transport on coastal environments: A review. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 67:280-292. 2006 Cuba Review Beaches & Nature Parks; Boating Regulations; Cruise Ships; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Docks & Marinas; Hotel & Food Services; Infrastructure; Invasive Species; Land & Air Transportation; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation; Trampling
Dearden, P., M. Bennett, and R. Rollins. 2006. Implications for coral reef conservation of diver specialization. Environmental Conservation 33:353-363. 2006 Cuba; Thailand Field Study & Monitoring; Model Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Funding & Incentives; Landuse Management; Marine Protected Areas; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation
Kelley Hart. 2006. The upper Neuse Clean Water Iniative Conservation Plan. 2006 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) GIS & Maps; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Agriculture; Drinking Water Supply; Improved Technology; Infrastructure; Landscape Conservation & Restoration; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Water Utilities Policies
Kuster, C., V. C. Vuki, and L. P. Zann. 2006. Validation of the accuracy of household reporting of subsistence fishing catch and effort: A Fijian case study. Fisheries Management and Ecology 13:177-184. 2006 Fiji Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Housing; Invertebrates
Madhusoodanan, G., P. P. Ouseph, and S. Kumar. 2006. Bacterial contamination of drinking water and its impact on primary health at Kavaratti Island, Lakshadweep, Union Territory of India. Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Environmental Sciences 8:839-843. 2006 Global; India Discharges; Drinking Water Supply; Microorganisms; Pathogens; Sewage Treatment; Waste Management Policies; Water Utilities Policies
Ramos, J., M. N. Santos, D. Whitmarsh, and C. C. Monteiro. 2006. The usefulness of the analytic hierarchy process for understanding reef diving choices: A case study. Bulletin of Marine Science 78:213-219. 2006 Artificial Habitat; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism
Thapa, B., A. R. Graefe, and L. A. Meyer. 2006. Specialization and marine based environmental behaviors among SCUBA divers. Journal of Leisure Research 38:601-615. 2006 Florida; Cuba Index or Indicator Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Education & Outreach; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation
Weil, E. 2006. Diversity and relative abundance of corals, octocorals and sponges at Jaragua National Park, Dominican Republic [Diversidad y abundancia relativa de corales, octocorales y esponjas en el Parque Nacional Jaragua, Republica Dominicana.]. Revista de biología tropical 54:423-443. 2006 South & Central America; Cuba; Dominican Republic; Caribbean Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Octocoral; Sponges; Stony Coral
Boulon, R., M. Chiappone, R. Halley, W. Jaap, B. Keller, B. Kruczynski, M. Miller, and C. Rogers. 2005. Atlantic Acropora Status Review. 2005 Global; South & Central America; Florida; US East Coast (NC, SC, GA); Jamaica; Belize; Caribbean; Mexico Review Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Climate; Coastal Development; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Non-point Source Runoff; Nutrients; Pathogens; Physical Damage; Sediment; Special Use Permitting; Stony Coral; Storms & Hurricanes; Zooxanthellae
Hawkins, J. P., C. M. Roberts, D. Kooistra, K. Buchan, and S. White. 2005. Sustainability of scuba diving tourism on coral reefs of Saba. Coastal Management 33:373-387. 2005 South & Central America; Antilles; Cuba; Caribbean Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Marine Protected Areas; Storms & Hurricanes; Tourism & Recreation
Lang, M. A. 2005. The USA scientific diving medical and safety experience. South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal 35:154-161. 2005 Global; Cuba Review; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Scientific Research; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation
Milazzo, M., F. Badalamenti, T. Vega Fernandez, and R. Chemello. 2005. Effects of fish feeding by snorkellers on the density and size distribution of fishes in a Mediterranean marine protected area. Marine Biology 146:1213-1222. 2005 Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fish; Invertebrates; Marine Protected Areas; Planktivorous Fish; Tourism & Recreation
Mitchell, C., J. Brodie, and I. White. 2005. Sediments, nutrients and pesticide residues in event flow conditions in streams of the Mackay Whitsunday Region, Australia. Marine Pollution Bulletin 51:23-36. 2005 Australia Drinking Water Supply; Fertilizer & Pesticide Use; Irrigation; Nutrients; Sediment; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. 2005. Contaminated Sediment Remediation Guidance for Hazardous Waste Sites. EPA-540-R-05-012, US Environmental Protection Agency. 2005 India Review; Field Study & Monitoring; Lab Study; Model Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Health Policies; Infrastructural Policies; Infrastructure; Landscape Conservation & Restoration; Remediation; Security Policies; Sediment; Shoreline Protection; Solid Waste Disposal; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Waste Management Policies
Potter, A. and V. Molose. 2005. Access to clean water crucial in fight against AIDS. Water Wheel 4:18-20. 2005
Uychiaoco, A. J., H. O. Arceo, S. J. Green, M. T. De La Cruz, P. A. Gaite, and P. M. Alino. 2005. Monitoring and evaluation of reef protected areas by local fishers in the Philippines: Tightening the adaptive management cycle. Biodiversity and Conservation 14:2775-2794. 2005 Philippines Field Study & Monitoring Banks, Credit, & Securities; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fish; Social Organizations; Stony Coral
Barker, N. H. L. and C. M. Roberts. 2004. Scuba diver behaviour and the management of diving impacts on coral reefs. Biological Conservation 120:481-489. 2004 Cuba; St. Lucia Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Substrate; Tourism & Recreation
Coma, R., E. Pola, M. Ribes, and M. Zabala. 2004. Long-term assessment of temperate octocoral mortality patterns, protected vs. unprotected areas. Ecological Applications 14:1466-1478. 2004 Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Marine Protected Areas; Octocoral; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation
Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2004. Southeast Florida coral reef initiative: a local action strategy. 2004 Florida Coastal Development; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest
Karr, J. R. and C. O. Yoder. 2004. Biological assessment and criteria improve TMDL decision making. Journal of Environmental Engineering [inpress]. 2004 Field Study & Monitoring; Model; Index or Indicator Biocriteria; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Designated Uses; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Leopold, M., J. Ferraris, and P. Labrosse. 2004. Assessment of the reliability of fish consumption as an indicator of reef fish catches in small Pacific islands: The example of Ouvea Island in New Caledonia. Aquatic Living Resource 17:119-127. 2004 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia; New Caledonia Field Study & Monitoring; Index or Indicator; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Housing; Resource Use Management
Lynch, T.P., E. Wilkinson, L. Melling, R. Hamilton, A. Macready, and S. Feary. 2004. Conflict and Impacts of Divers and Anglers in a Marine Park. Environmental Management 33:196-211. 2004 Australia; Cuba Apex Fish Predators; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Landuse Management; Marine Protected Areas; Tourism & Recreation
Miller, K. J., C. N. Mundy, and W. L. Chadderton. 2004. Ecological and genetic evidence of the vulnerability of shallow-water populations of the stylasterid hydro coral Errina novaezelandiae in New Zealand's fiords. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 14:75-94. 2004 Cuba Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Hydrocoral; Tourism & Recreation
Tibbetts, J. 2004. The state of the oceans, part 1: eating away at a global food source. Environmental Health Perspectives 112:A282-A291. 2004 Global Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquaculture; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Pathogens
Tongson, E. and M. Dygico. 2004. User fee system for marine ecotourism: The Tubbataha Reef experience. Coastal Management 32:17-23. 2004 Cuba; Philippines Banks, Credit, & Securities; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Marine Protected Areas; Monetary Valuation; Tourism & Recreation
Valentine, P. S., A. Birtles, M. Curnock, P. Arnold, and A. Dunstan. 2004. Getting closer to whales - Passenger expectations and experiences, and the management of swim with dwarf minke whale interactions in the Great Barrier Reef. Tourism Management 25:647-655. 2004 Australia Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation; Whales & Dolphins
Davis, M. 2003. Decompression sickness in a 14-year-old diver. South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal 33:75-76. 2003 Cuba Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Water Depth & Sea Level
DeFelice, R. C. and J. D. Parrish. 2003. Importance of benthic prey for fishes in coral reef-associated sediments. Pacific Science 57:359-384. 2003 US Pacific & Hawaii Bivalves; Complex Habitat & Resources; Fish; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Molluscs; Sediment; Substrate
Diamond, A. 2003. Identification and assessment of scleractinians at Tarou Point, Dominica, West Indies. Coastal Management 31:409-421. 2003 Field Study & Monitoring Cultural Policies; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish Harvest; Sediment; Shoreline Protection; Stony Coral; Substrate; Tourism & Recreation
Eggleston, D. B., E. G. Johnson, G. T. Kellison, and D. A. Nadeau. 2003. Intense removal and non-saturating functional responses by recreational divers on spiny lobster Panulirus argus. Marine Ecology Progress Series 257:197-207. 2003 South & Central America; Florida; Cuba; Caribbean Index or Indicator Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Finkl, C. W. and R. H. Charlier. 2003. Sustainability of Subtropical Coastal Zones in Southeastern Florida: Challenges for Urbanized Coastal Environments Threatened by Development, Pollution, Water Supply, and Storm Hazards. Journal of Coastal Research 19:934-943. 2003 Florida; US East Coast (NC, SC, GA); Cuba Model Agriculture; Banks, Credit, & Securities; Chemical Use Regulations; Discharges; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Fertilizer & Pesticide Use; Finfish Harvest; Landuse Management; Non-point Source Runoff; Nutrients; Remediation; Storms & Hurricanes; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Tourism & Recreation; Water; Wetlands
Pattengill-Semmens C.V., Semmens B.X. 2003. Conservation and management applications of the reef volunteer fish monitoring program. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 81:43-50. 2003 Florida; US Pacific & Hawaii; US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Field Study & Monitoring Collaboration & Partnering; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fish; Marine Protected Areas; Social Organizations
The Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL) the Tour Opperators' Iniative (TOI) and The Center for Environmental Leadership in Business (CELB). 2003. A Practical Guide to Good Practice: Managing Environmental Impacts In The Marine Recreation Sector. 2003 Cuba Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Boating Regulations; Cultural Policies; Cultural Protections; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Hotel & Food Services; Recreational Fishing; Souvenir & Decorative Trade; Storms & Hurricanes; Tourism & Recreation; Travel Services & Tour Operators
Thorburn, P. J., J. S. Biggs, K. L. Weier, and B. A. Keating. 2003. Nitrate in groundwaters of intensive agricultural areas in coastal Northeastern Australia. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 94:49-58. 2003 Australia Field Study & Monitoring Agriculture; Chemical Use Regulations; Drinking Water Supply; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fertilizer & Pesticide Use; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Nutrients; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Young, R. F. and H. E. Winn. 2003. Activity patterns, diet, and shelter site use for two species of moray eels, Gymnothorax moringa and Gymnothorax vicinus, in Belize. Copeia 44-55. 2003 South & Central America; Belize Apex Fish Predators; Complex Habitat & Resources; Fish; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Octopus & Squid; Piscivorous Fish; Planktivorous Fish; Skeletal Coral
Zubillaga, A. L., S. M. Pauls, and A. Croquer. 2003. Evaluation of the impact of recreational dive activity on the community structure of some coral reefs at Los Roques Archipelago National Park, Venezuela [Evaluacion de las actividades del buceo recreativo sobre la estructura comunitaria de algunos arreci. Revista de Biologia Tropical 51:189-195. 2003 South & Central America; Venezuela; Caribbean Index or Indicator Algae; Corallivorous Fish; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fish; Large Herbivorous Fish; Octocoral; Pathogens; Skeletal Coral; Sponges; Stony Coral; Tourism & Recreation
Buckley, R. 2002. Surf tourism and sustainable development in Indo-Pacific Islands. I. The industry and the islands. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 10:405-424. 2002 US Pacific & Hawaii Agriculture; Cultural Policies; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Drinking Water Supply; Fishing Sector; Forestry; Textiles & Apparel; Tourism & Recreation
Christie, P., A. White, and E. Deguit. 2002. Starting point or solution? Community-based marine protected areas in the Philippines. Journal of Environmental Management 66:441-454. 2002 Philippines Boating Regulations; Complex Habitat & Resources; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas; Seastars; Small Boats; Special Use Permitting; Stony Coral; Storms & Hurricanes
Ditton, R. B., H. R. Osburn, T. L. Baker, and C. E. Thailing. 2002. Demographics, attitudes, and reef management preferences of sport divers in offshore Texas waters. ICES Journal of Marine Science 59. 2002 Cuba Artificial Habitat; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Tourism & Recreation
Lok, A., C. Metin, A. Ulas, F. O. Duzbastilar, and A. Tokac. 2002. Artificial reefs in Turkey. ICES Journal of Marine Science 59. 2002 Field Study & Monitoring Artificial Habitat; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Recreational Fishing; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Matta, J., J. Navas, M. Milad, R. Manger, A. Hupka, and T. Frazer. 2002. A pilot study for the detection of acute ciguatera intoxication in human blood. Journal of Toxicology - Clinical Toxicology 40:49-57. 2002 Puerto Rico Lab Study; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Fish
Park T., J. M. Bowker, and V. R. Leeworthy. 2002. Valuing snorkeling visits to the Florida Keys with stated and revealed preference models. Journal of Environmental Management 64:301-312. 2002 Florida Model Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Monetary Valuation; Non-Monetary Valuation; Remediation; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Valuation
Reckhow, Kenneth H.; Stow, Craig A.; Borsuk, Mark E. 2002. Uncertainty Between The Criterion And The Designated Use: Implications For Standards And Tmdl Margin Of Safety. Pages 1223-1228 in Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation. 2002 Model; Index or Indicator Designated Uses; Nutrients; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria; Water
Rouphael, A. B. and G. J. Inglis. 2002. Increased spatial and temporal variability in coral damage caused by recreational scuba diving. Ecological Applications 12:427-440. 2002 Australia; Cuba Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Marine Protected Areas; Stony Coral; Tourism & Recreation
Suenaga, Y., K. Masuda, H. Kakegawa, K. Hisamura, A. Suenaga, and K. Kimigawa. 2002. Development of the System for Creating Fishery Ground in and Around the Seto Inland Sea. Pages 420-424 in Proceedings of the International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference. 2002 Field Study & Monitoring; Model Artificial Habitat; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fish; Fishing Sector
Jimenez, C. 2001. Arrecifes y ambientes coralinos de Bahia Culebra, Pacifico de Costa Rica: Aspectos biologicos, economico-recreativos y de manejo. Revista de Biologia Tropical 49:215-231. 2001 US Pacific & Hawaii; Costa Rica Field Study & Monitoring; Index or Indicator Algae; Coralline Algae; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Docks & Marinas; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fish; Hotel & Food Services; Infrastructure; Sea Urchins; Sponges; Stony Coral; Substrate; Tourism & Recreation
Losada-Tosteson, V., J. M. Posada, and F. Losada. 2001. Size and reproductive status of fished spotted spiny lobster, Panulirus guttatus, in Morrocoy National Park, Venezuela: A preliminary report. Marine and Freshwater Research 52:1599-1603. 2001 South & Central America; Venezuela; Caribbean Field Study & Monitoring Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Special Use Permitting
Rouphael, A. B. and G. J. Inglis. 2001. \Take only photographs and leave only footprints\"?: An experimental study of the impacts of underwater photographers on coral reef dive sites". Biological Conservation 100:281-287. 2001 Australia; Cuba Model Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Marine Protected Areas; Special Use Permitting; Stony Coral; Tourism & Recreation
Tratalos, J. A. and T. J. Austin. 2001. Impacts of recreational SCUBA diving on coral communities of the Caribbean island of Grand Cayman. Biological Conservation 102:67-75. 2001 South & Central America; Cayman Islands; Cuba; Caribbean Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Recreational Opportunities; Skeletal Coral; Stony Coral; Tourism & Recreation
Carbone, F. and G. Accordi. 2000. The Indian Ocean Coast of Somalia. Marine Pollution Bulletin 41:141-159. 2000 Indian Ocean; Somalia; Kenya; Tanzania; India Field Study & Monitoring Aquaculture; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fish; Fishing Sector; Mangroves; Marine Birds; Marine Protected Areas; Sea Turtles; Seagrasses; Sediment; Substrate
Debrot, A. O. and I. Nagelkerken. 2000. User perceptions on coastal resource state and management options in Curacao. Revista de Biologia Tropical 48:95-106. 2000 South & Central America; Antilles; Caribbean Review; Index or Indicator Banks, Credit, & Securities; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Resource Use Management; Sea Turtles; Snails & Conch; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation
Hajkowicz, S., M. Young, S. Wheeler, D. MacDonald, and D. Young. 2000. Supporting Decisions: Understanding Natural Resource Management Assessment Techniques - A report to the Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation. Primary Industries and Resources SA, Adelaide (South Australia). 2000 Australia Agriculture; Drinking Water Supply; Resource Use Management; Salinity
Letourneur, Y., P. Labrosse, and M. Kulbicki. 2000. Spatial distribution of standing stocks of reefal demersal fish of commercial interest and fishing effort in the Northern Province of New Caledonia (Western Pacific) [Distribution spatiale des stocks de poissons recifaux demersaux d'interet commercial et. Oceanologica Acta 23:595-606. 2000 Global; US Pacific & Hawaii; New Caledonia Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector
Rajasuriya, A. and A. Premaratne. 2000. Sri Lanka. Seas at the millennium - an environmental evaluation - Volume 2 175-187. 2000 Indian Ocean; Cuba; Sri Lanka; India Agriculture; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Chemical Use Regulations; Climate; Discharges; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Echinoderms; Fertilizer & Pesticide Use; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Hotel & Food Services; Infrastructure; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Mangroves; Seagrasses; Sediment; Storms & Hurricanes; Wetlands
Schleyer, M. H. and B. J. Tomalin. 2000. Damage on South African coral reefs and an assessment of their sustainable diving capacity using a fisheries approach. Bulletin of Marine Science 67:1025-1042. 2000 South Africa Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Hotel & Food Services; Octocoral; Stony Coral
Shafer, C. S. and G. J. Inglis. 2000. Influence of social, biophysical, and managerial conditions on tourism experiences within the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. Environmental Management 26:73-87. 2000 Australia Index or Indicator; Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Cultural Policies; Cultural Protections; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Infrastructure; Marine Protected Areas; Tourism & Recreation
Shivlani, M. P. and D. O. Suman. 2000. Dive operator use patterns in the designated no-take zones of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). Environmental Management 25:647-659. 2000 Florida GIS & Maps Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Landuse Management; Tourism & Recreation
White, A. T., H. P. Vogt, and T. Arin. 2000. Philippine coral reefs under threat: The economic losses caused by reef destruction. Marine Pollution Bulletin 40:598-605. 2000 Philippines Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Funding & Donations; Monetary Valuation; Sediment; Tourism & Recreation; Valuation
White, A. T., M. Ross, and M. Flores. 2000. Benefits and costs of coral reef and wetland management, Olango Island, Philippines. Pages 215-227 in H. S. J. Cesar, editor. Collected essays on the economics of coral reefs. CORDIO, Kalmar, Sweden. 2000 Philippines Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fishing Sector; Landuse Management; Mangroves; Tourism & Recreation; Valuation; Wetlands
Wilks, J. and R. J. Davis. 2000. Risk management for scuba diving operators on Australia's Great Barrier Reef. Tourism Management 21:591-599. 2000 Australia; Cuba Review Discharges; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Tourism & Recreation
Williams, I. D. and N. V. C. Polunin. 2000. Differences between protected and unprotected reefs of the western Caribbean in attributes preferred by dive tourists. Environmental Conservation 27:382-391. 2000 South & Central America; Cuba; Jamaica; Belize; Caribbean; France Algae; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Protected Areas; Sponges; Tourism & Recreation
Zakai, D., O. Levy, and N. E. Chadwick-Furman. 2000. Experimental fragmentation reduces sexual reproductive output by the reef-building coral Pocillopora damicornis. Coral Reefs 19:185-188. 2000 Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Stony Coral; Storms & Hurricanes; Tourism & Recreation
Al-Awadhi, F. M. A. 1999. The Year of the Ocean and its crucial importance to the Gulf. Desalination 123:127-133. 1999 Global Discharges; Drinking Water Supply; Finfish Harvest; Littering; Sediment; Shipping, Storage, & Warehousing; Waste Management Policies
Fernandes, L., M. A. Ridgley, and T. Van't Hof. 1999. Multiple criteria analysis integrates economic, ecological and social objectives for coral reef managers. Coral Reefs 18:393-402. 1999 Global Model Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Marine Protected Areas; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Hawkins, J. P., C. M. Roberts, T. Van't Hof, K. De Meyer, J. Tratalos, and C. Aldam. 1999. Effects of recreational scuba diving on Caribbean coral and fish communities. Conservation Biology 13:888-897. 1999 South & Central America; Cuba; Caribbean Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fish; Pathogens; Physical Damage; Stony Coral; Tourism & Recreation
Jameson, S. C., M. S. A. Ammar, E. Saadalla, H. M. Mostafa, and B. Riegl. 1999. A coral damage index and its application to diving sites in the Egyptian Red Sea. Coral Reefs 18:333-339. 1999 Global; Egypt Index or Indicator Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Physical Damage; Skeletal Coral
Mead, S. and K. Black. 1999. A multipurpose, artificial reef at Mount Maunganui Beach, New Zealand. Coastal Management 27:355-365. 1999 Artificial Habitat; Construction Codes & Projects; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Shoreline Protection; Tourism & Recreation
Ralph, P. J., R. Gademann, A. W. D. Larkum, and U. Schreiber. 1999. In situ underwater measurements of photosynthetic activity of coral zooxanthellae and other reef-dwelling dinoflagellate endosymbionts. Marine Ecology Progress Series 180:139-147. 1999 Germany Anemones & Zooanthids; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Light; Primary Production; Special Use Permitting; Stony Coral; Zooxanthellae
Schleyer, M. H. 1999. A synthesis of KwaZulu-Natal coral research. Special Publication, 5. A synthesis of KwaZulu-Natal coral research. Special Publication, 5. 1999 Indian Ocean; India; South Africa Review; Field Study & Monitoring Climate; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Van Treeck, P. and H. Schuhmacher. 1999. Mass diving tourism - A new dimensional calls for new management approaches. Marine Pollution Bulletin 37:499-504. 1999 Artificial Habitat; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Education & Outreach; Tourism & Recreation
Cuthill, M. 1998. Managing the Yongala Historic Shipwreck. Coastal Management 26:33-46. 1998 Australia; Cuba Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Marine Protected Areas; Museums, Amusement Parks, Historical Sites; Tourism & Recreation
Fuchs, A. and U. Radtke. 1998. Ecological problems on the carribean island of Barbados [Okologische probleme auf der karibischen insel Barbados]. Geographische Rundschau 50:706-713. 1998 Cuba Deforestation & Devegetation; Drinking Water Supply; Sediment; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Waste Management Policies; Wastewater Discharge; Water
Shackley, M. 1998. 'Stingray City' - managing the impact of underwater tourism in the Cayman Islands. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 6:328-338. 1998 South & Central America; Cayman Islands; Caribbean Field Study & Monitoring Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Tourism & Recreation
Dvorak, J. 1997. Geology of palaeozoic sediments in the surroundings of Ostrov u Macochy (Moravian Karst, Moravia) [Geologie paleozoika v okoli Ostrova u Macochy (Moravský kras, Morava)]. Journal of the Czech Geological Society 42:105-110. 1997 Drinking Water Supply; Sediment
Richards, R. P., D. B. Baker, N. L. Creamer, J. W. Kramer, D. E. Ewing, B. J. Merryfield, and L. K. Wallrabenstein. 1996. Well water quality, well vulnerability, and agricultural contamination in the midwestern United States. Journal of Environmental Quality 25:389-402. 1996 India GIS & Maps Agriculture; Cultural Protections; Drinking Water Supply; Surface & Groundwater Flow
Brits, P. C., A. L. R. Carvalho, and J. T. Pressly. 1995. Evaluation of the effectiveness of bromochlorodimethylhydantoin as a disinfectant for mine underground service water. Pages 25-34 in Water Supply. 1995 South Africa Drinking Water Supply; Microorganisms; Mineral, Rock, & Metal Mining; Pathogens; Water
Chen, K. M. 1995. Disappearance of ALS from Guam: Implications for exogenous causes. Pages 1549-1553 in Clinical Neurology. 1995 US Pacific & Hawaii; Cuba; Guam Deforestation & Devegetation; Drinking Water Supply; Golf Course Operations; Hotel & Food Services; Housing; Military; Pathogens; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Tourism & Recreation; Water
Davis, D., V. Harriott, C. Macnamara, L. Roberts, and S. Austin. 1995. Conflicts in a marine protected area: scuba divers, economics, ecology and management in Julian Rocks Aquatic Reserve. Australian Parks & Recreation 31:29-35. 1995 Australia; Cuba Field Study & Monitoring Artificial Habitat; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Marine Protected Areas; Monetary Valuation; Substrate; Tourism & Recreation
Hawkins, J. P. and C. M. Roberts. 1993. Effects of recreational scuba diving on coral reefs: trampling on reef-flat communities. Journal of Applied Ecology 30:25-30. 1993 Cuba; Egypt Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Hotel & Food Services; Skeletal Coral; Stony Coral; Tourism & Recreation; Trampling
Nakayama, AK IY OS HI, NO BU YU KI Horikosi, and HI RO SH I Kobayashi. 1993. Planning and design of multipurpose artificial barrier reefs. Pages 183-197 in Coastal Zone: Proceedings of the Symposium on Coastal and Ocean Management. 1993 Japan Model Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fishing Sector; Water Depth & Sea Level
Hawkins, J. P. and C. M. Roberts. 1992. Effects of recreational SCUBA diving on fore-reef slope communities of coral reefs. Biological Conservation 62:171-178. 1992 Cuba; Egypt Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Hotel & Food Services; Tourism & Recreation
Chou, L. M. 1991. Reef conservation project involving sport divers in Singapore. Pages 1990-1994 in Coastal Zone: Proceedings of the Symposium on Coastal and Ocean Management. 1991 Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism
McGurrin Joseph, M. 1987. New Directions In Atlantic Artificial Reef Development. Pages 3629-3634 in [No source information available]. 1987 US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Artificial Habitat; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Anon,. 1986. OCEANS 86 - CONFERENCE RECORD. in Oceans Conference Record (IEEE). 1986 Field Study & Monitoring; Model; Remote Sensing Artificial Habitat; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fishing Sector; Tourism & Recreation
Giesecke Anne, G. 1986. Artificial Reefs: Dealing With Conflicts And Varied Interests. Pages 522-523 in Oceans Conference Record (IEEE). 1986 Artificial Habitat; Commercial Fisheries; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Fish
Newton, R. S. and A. Stefanon. 1982. Side-scan sonar and subbottom profiling in the northern Adriatic Sea. Marine Geology 46:279-306. 1982 Algae; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Marine Worms; Sediment; Storms & Hurricanes; Water Depth & Sea Level
Kenchington, R. A. 1978. The Crown-of-thorns crisis in Australia: A retrospective analysis. Environmental Conservation 5:20-Nov. 1978 US Pacific & Hawaii; Australia; Cuba Review; Field Study & Monitoring Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Seastars
Rahaman, M. M., M. M. Khan, and K. M. S. Aziz. 1975. An outbreak of dysentery caused by Shigella dysenteriae type 1 on a coral island in the Bay of Bengal. Journal of Infectious Diseases 132:15-19. 1975 Drinking Water Supply; Pathogens; Water Utilities Policies
Jalal, K. F. Regional water resources situation: quantitative and qualitative aspects. in [No source information available]. Drinking Water Supply; Fishing Sector; Mangroves; Natural Gas & Electric Power; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics Sources

Management Options

Management Option Description Sources Database Topics
Data Management & Decision Tools: Develop and Maintain Vessel Grounding Database This management approach would involve refining and maintaining a vessel grounding database and adequate staffing for on-going management, GIS processing of archived data, creating products for management case tracking, and developing a database that is user-friendly and useful. If previously established, the management option #165, will allow this data to be combined with similar data from other inventory management options such as #95, and future integration into larger databases, such as that in the management option #85. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Contact Uses; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Dredging Regulations; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Physical Damage; Pressures; Resource Use Management; Responses; Security & Public Administration Policies; Transportation Policies
Develop & Distribute Educational Materials: Establish VHF Radio Stations The local sanctuary staff should work to secure a VHF radio station dedicated to provide information about local boating and water activities in multiple languages. Broadcast messages can include, but are not limited to information about regulations, navigation, resources, weather, and reef conditions. This will help prevent boaters, divers, and fishermen from negatively affecting the ecosystem. Assessments regarding cost and target audience areas must be conducted and external funding pursued to supplement the expense. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Ballast Discharge; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Environmental Education & Outreach; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Security & Public Administration Policies; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Marine Zoning: Utilize Marine Protected Areas for Research and Monitoring Research and monitoring of marine protected areas determine the degree to which the zones meet goals and objectives for protecting natural resources, as well as human-use patterns, attitudes and compliance. Once data is gathered from within the protected zone it can than be compared to comprable data from outside the protected zone, as a control. It is necessary to compile and review data on use patterns to determine where additional Special-Use Areas would be appropriate. Research in the protected area should be non-invasive. It is important to make the protected area available for external research as well. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Collaboration & Partnering; Contact Uses; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Discharges; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Fish; Invasive Species; Invertebrates; Landscape Changes; Marine Protected Areas; Marine Vertebrates; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Resource Use Management; Special Use Permitting; Wetlands
Marine Zoning: Special Use Areas Special use areas are set aside for specific scientific or educational purposes. This is in order to encourage the recovery or restoration of injured or degraded resources. Also, the areas may be designated to facilitate access to, or use of, resources, and prevent other user conflicts. Special-use areas are achieved through a variety of methods such as: placing/maintaining buoys along zone boundaries; adjusting boundaries if necessary; evaluating allowable activities within zone boundaries; identifying potential areas that need additional zoning; reviewing the effectiveness of the zoning; and revising NOAA and GIS charts; and determining/establishing appropriate zones for high-impact or user-conflict activities. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Biological Addition; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Biomedical Research Policies; Complex Habitat & Resources; Contact Uses; Cultural Services; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Education & Information; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Health Policies; Marine Protected Areas; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Provisioning Services; Resource Use Management; Scientific Research; Social Organizations; Special Use Permitting; Supporting Services; Wetland & Reef Restoration
Marine Zoning: Sanctuary Preservation Areas (SPAs) This is a type of Marine Zoning used by the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). SPAs focus on the protection of shallow, heavily used reefs where conflicts occur between user groups, and where concentrated visitor activity leads to resource degradation. They are designed to enhance the reproductive capabilities of renewable resources, protect areas critical for sustaining and protecting important marine species, and reduce user conflicts in high-use areas. This is accomplished through a prohibition of consumptive activities within these areas. They have been chosen based on the status of important habitat, the ability of a particular area to sustain and protect the habitat, the level of visitor use, and the degree of conflict between consumptive and non-consumptive users. The actual size and location of these zones have been determined by examination of user patterns, aerial photography, and ground-truthing of specific habitats. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Aquaculture; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Artisanal Fishing; Beaches & Nature Parks; Biological Addition; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Boat Movement; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Coastal Defense; Coastal Development; Coastal Engineering; Commercial Fisheries; Commercial Fishing Boats; Complex Habitat & Resources; Cruise Ships; Cultural Services; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Educational & Research Opportunities; Entertainment & Accommodation Services; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Landscape Changes; Large Ships; Live Collection; Marine Protected Areas; Oil & Gas Tankers; Ornamental Jewelry & Art; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Public Administration; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Security; Small Boats; Souvenir & Decorative Trade; Supporting Services; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Trampling; Travel Services & Tour Operators; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage; Water Resources; Water Transportation
Marine Zoning: Integrate Resource Information in Permits, Authorizations, or Certifications Permitting usually includes assessing the natural and cultural resources of an area. Using this previosly gathered data would aid in creating an inventory for marine resources. If previosuly established, the management option (#165), will allow this data to be combined with data from other inventory management options such as (#95), and future integration into larger databases, such as that in the management option (#85). NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Boating Regulations; Collaboration & Partnering; Construction Codes & Projects; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Permitting & Zoning; Resource Use Management; Special Use Permitting
Marine Zoning: Ecological Reserves (ERs) Ecological Reserves set aside areas with minimal human interference. These reserves aim to enhance and protect biodiversity through encompassing large, contiguous habitats. The goal of ecological reserves is to encourage spawning, nurseries, and residence areas that contribute to genetic protection of fish and marine life. Ecological Reserves can be achieved through a variety of methods such as: placing/maintaining buoys along zone boundaries; adjusting boundaries if necessary; evaluating allowable activities within zone boundaries; identifying potential areas that need additional zoning; reviewing the effectiveness of the zoning; and revising NOAA and GIS charts. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Biochemical & Genetic Resources; Biological Addition; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Coastal Defense; Commercial Fishing Boats; Complex Habitat & Resources; Cruise Ships; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Large Ships; Live Collection; Marine Protected Areas; Oil & Gas Tankers; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Provisioning Services; Resource Use Management; Security Policies; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation; Trampling; Water Transportation
Marine Zoning: Existing Management Areas The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) uses this zoning category to identify areas that are managed by other agencies where restrictions already exist. These zones delineate the existing jurisdictional authority of other agencies (i.e., State parks, aquatic preserves, sanctuaries, and other restricted areas). Management of these areas within the Sanctuary may require additional regulations or restrictions to adequately protect resources. Any additional management measures will be developed and implemented in coordination with the agency having jurisdictional authority. Their function is not to establish another layer of bureaucracy, but to recognize established management areas and, at a minimum, to complement the existing management programs, ensuring cooperation and coordination with other agencies. Existing Management Areas will be maintained through revising GIS and NOAA charts. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Beaches & Nature Parks; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Boating Activities; Coastal Defense; Contact Uses; Decision Support; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Entertainment & Accommodation Services; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Marine Protected Areas; Permitting & Zoning; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation; Water Transportation
Marine Zoning: Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) Wildlife Management Areas include bird nesting, resting, or feeding areas, turtle nesting beaches, and other sensitive habitats including shallow flats that are important feeding areas for fish. These areas seek to provide protection for endangered/threatened species or their habitats while at the same time providing opportunity for public use. Wildlife Management Areas are achieved through placing and maintaining buoys along zone boundaries; implementing management responsibilities; adjusting existing zone boundaries if needed; evaluating allowable activities within the boundaries and make changes if needed; identifying potential areas that need additional zoning; monitoring the effectiveness of current zones; and revising GIS and NOAA charts. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Beaches & Nature Parks; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Boating Activities; Coastal Defense; Contact Uses; Cultural Services; Decision Support; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Entertainment & Accommodation Services; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Landscape Conservation & Restoration; Marine Birds; Marine Protected Areas; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Sea Turtles; Tourism & Recreation; Trampling; Water Transportation; Wetlands
Monitor & Research: Utilize Managed Areas for Socioeconomic Research Data are needed to test hypotheses about the socioeconomic impact of marine zoning and user-group perceptions about changes in natural resources within the sanctuary area. User-group perception of changes in natural resources can be compared with quantitative ecological data to identify misconceptions and knowledge gaps. Providing funding opportunities for external scientists to conduct research in the managed area is another option. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Contact Uses; Cultural Services; Culture; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Economic Markets & Policies; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Food & Raw Materials; Infrastructural Policies; Landuse Management; Marine Protected Areas; Monetary Valuation; Non-Monetary Valuation; Permitting & Zoning; Provisioning Services; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Regulating Services; Resource Use Management; Special Use Permitting; Supporting Services; Valuation
Monitor & Research: Survey and Collect Anecdotal Information Anecdotal information is to be solicited from experts and amateur public participation through surveys and workshops. Persons of interest include fishermen, recreational divers, recreational dive facilities, salvors and other locals with knowledge of marine resources in the area. Information they provide can help identify marine cultural and natural resources and help update resource inventory. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Boating Regulations; Coastal Engineering; Collaboration & Partnering; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Cultural Policies; Cultural Protections; Cultural Services; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Educational & Research Opportunities; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Marine Products; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Provisioning Services; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Responses; Security & Public Administration Policies; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Valuation; Water Transportation
Regulatory Review and Development: Evaluate Spearfishing Regulations Spearfishing is already prohibited in ecological reserves, sanctuary preservation areas, management areas, and special-use areas. There are additional considerations to be made to see if restrictions need to be extended in high priority areas. There may also be need to be further scientific study on the impacts of spearfishing. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Cochrane, K.L., editor. 2002. A Fishery Manager's Guidebook. Management Measures and their application. Fisheries Technical Paper 424, FAO, Rome.

Seas At Risk. 2009. Moving Towards Low Impact Fisheries In Europe Policy Hurdles & Actions.

Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Contact Uses; Cultural Services; Culture; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Raw Materials; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Sectors Filling Human Needs; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Regulatory Review and Development: Change Personal Watercraft & Other Small Vessels Practices This activity would aim to reduce noise and pollution, and conflicts among PWC users, the resources, and Sanctuary users. Practices could be changed through requiring certain training to drive such vessels, or restricting which types can be used in designated coastal areas. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Boat Movement; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Contact Uses; Designated Uses; Physical Damage; Recreational Fishing; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Water Transportation
Regulatory Review and Development: Consider Regulations for Catch & Release Trolling This plan seeks to reduce or eliminate catch-and-release fishing in many fragile areas. First an assessment must be conducted to measure the effects of catch-and -release trolling. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Contact Uses; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Scientific Research; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Regulatory Review and Development: Evaluate Activities Allowed in Existing Regulatory Zones There are five different types of regulatory zones within the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary: Ecological Reserves, Sanctuary preservation Areas, Wildlife Management Areas, Existing Management Areas, and Special Use Areas. Each zone has a different set of prohibited or allowable activities. This type of diversity in zones allows for visitors to partake in the activity they desire, but in an area where the impact will be less severe. Allowable activities require periodic evaluation and may need to be changed or relocated to allow for recovery or to address other issues of concern. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Biological Harvest; Contact Uses; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Fishing Sector; Resource Use Management; Security & Public Administration Policies; Tourism & Recreation
Regulatory Review and Development: Evaluate Aquaculture/Mariculture Regulations This will help determine if there is a need to establish mariculture operations regulations and proceed accordingly. This would help satisfy the commercial demand for fish while taking pressure off of the wild species. Such regulations should consider where, when and what species of mariculture are allowable. The environmental impact mariculture has can vary depending on current, depth and distance to land, making location and even season important. The species being cultured is also an important consideration, especially if they are non-native or different genetically from the local natural population as escapes may occur. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

NEPA. 1998. MARICULTURE DRAFT POLICY AND REGULATION NATURAL RESOURCES CONSERVATION AUTHORITY COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT DIVISION. National Environment & Planning agency.

Agriculture, Aquaculture, & Forestry Policies; Aquaculture; Biological Addition; Biological Harvest; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Designated Uses; Domestic Animal Waste; Escape & Release of Non-natives; Food & Energy Policies; Food & Raw Materials; Invasive Species; Resource Use Management; Supplemental Feeding
Regulatory Review and Development: Evaluate Channel & Reef Navigation Markers This option would evaluate the need for proper marking to ensure better navigation. There are many types of markers, including buoys, charts, beacons, and GPS mapping. Such markers can also be used to advocate prohibition on vessel speeds greater than idle speed in areas designated as idle-speed only/no-wake and around shallow reef locations. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Beach & Land Formation; Boat Movement; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Coastal Development; Contact Uses; Cultural Services; Culture; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Dredging Regulations; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Provisioning Services; Public Administration; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Security & Public Administration Policies; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation; Trampling; Transportation Policies; Water Depth & Sea Level; Water Resources; Water Transportation
Regulatory Review and Development: Evaluate Bait Fishing and/or Catch & Release Trolling Regulations This option seeks to reduce or eliminate bait fishing, and catch & release trolling in fragile areas. First assessments must be conducted to measure the effects of bait fishing and catch & release trolling. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Contact Uses; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Scientific Research; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Resource Use Management: Fisheries Management Enforcement Marine protected areas and other types of coastal zone management areas have fisheries management policies that must be enforced in addition to the broader Statues, Regulation and Permit Requirements (#91). Illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing is a major problem worldwide. Management area policies must be enforced to have an impact on the fisheries stock. Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Commercial Fisheries; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Marine Protected Areas; Mitigation; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Public Administration; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Security Policies; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Resource Use Management: Develop Water Efficiency Initiatives Reducing water use through cost effective water efficiency improvements can be beneficial as it reduces pressure on water as a finite resource and saves money. There are several ways water efficiency can be promoted. Some Water Efficiency BMPs recommended by the EPA include: Water Management Planning; Information and Education Programs; Distribution System Audits, Leak Detection and Repair; Water-Efficient Landscaping, Water-Efficient Irrigation; Toilets and Urinals; Faucets and Showerheads; Boiler/Steam Systems; Single-Pass Cooling Equipment; Cooling Tower Management; Commercial Kitchen Equipment; Laboratory/ Medical Equipment; Other Water Intensive Processes; Alternative Water Sources. One of the ways the US government has promoted Water Efficiency Initiatives is through Executive order 13123 which places certain water use reduction requirements on Federal Agencies. There are also existing funding and incentives for non-government sectors. Project funding comes in many forms, such as appropriations, energy savings performance contract (ESPC) and Utility Energy Service Contract (UESCs) programs; ratepayer incentive programs such as rebates from public benefit funds or utilities; and the retention of energy and water cost savings. US Department of Energy. 2008. Establishing Baseline and Meeting Water Conservation Goals of Executive Order 13423.

Environmental Protection Agency. Federal Water Efficiency Best Management Practices. Federal Energy Management Program Accessed 7/12/2011.

Agriculture; Collaboration & Partnering; Designated Uses; Discharge Limitations; Discharges; Drinking Water Supply; Environmental Education & Outreach; Funding & Donations; Funding & Incentives; Hydrologic Management; Irrigation; Landscaping & Household Services; Natural Gas & Electric Power; Resource Use Management; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Textiles & Apparel; Utilities; Utility Policies; Water; Water Resources; Water Utilities Policies; Waterborne Discharges
Resource Use Management: Marine Heritage Resource Protections This management option involves protecting underwater items/sites that have historical, cultural, archaeological, or paleontological significance. This response advocates permits for action that may degrade the resource. This can be accomplished through creating an MHR field unit, monitoring MHR site degradation, and evaluating excavation and mitigation techniques. Field units can help conduct field research and coordinated, permitted research activities. Experts relating to archaeological research underwater can also be hired with additional funding. Through evaluation of excavation techniques, new technologies can be suggested such as: turbidity screens, sediment removal equipment, and seagrass restoration/relocation protocols to lead to less disturbance. Inventory and decision tools can also be used in the aid of Maritime Heritage Resource protection. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Civil Engineering & Construction; Construction Codes & Projects; Cultural Policies; Cultural Protections; Cultural Services; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Ecosystem Services; Educational & Research Opportunities; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Mitigation; Physical Damage; Pipelines; Reef Life; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Security & Public Administration Policies; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Utility Line Construction & Maintenance; Valuation; Wetlands
Resource Use Management: Designated Uses The water quality standards regulation requires that States and Tribes specify appropriate water uses to be achieved and protected. Appropriate uses are identified by taking into consideration the use and value of the water body for public water supply, for protection of fish, shellfish, and wildlife, and for recreational, agricultural, industrial, and navigational purposes. In designating uses for a water body, States and Tribes examine the suitability of a water body for the uses based on the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the water body, its geographical setting and scenic qualities, and economic considerations. Each water body does not necessarily require a unique set of uses. Instead, the characteristics necessary to support a use can be identified so that water bodies having those characteristics can be grouped together as supporting particular uses. The Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL) the Tour Opperators' Iniative (TOI) and The Center for Environmental Leadership in Business (CELB). 2003. A Practical Guide to Good Practice: Managing Environmental Impacts In The Marine Recreation Sector.

Environmental Protection Agency. What are Water Quality Standards? Designated Uses. Water: Water Quality Standards Accessed 7/12/2011.

Contact Uses; Cultural Services; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Food & Raw Materials; Marine Products; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria; Political Pressure; Provisioning Services; Resource Use Management; Security & Public Administration Policies; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Water Resources; Water Transportation
Water Quality Management: Water Quality Standards Water Quality Standards are the foundation of the water quality-based pollution control program mandated by the Clean Water Act. Water Quality Standards define the goals for a waterbody by establishing Designated Uses (#279), setting baseline waterbody minimum criteria to protect those uses, and establishing provisions that regulate Point Source Effluent Toxicity Standards (#280). Since the baseline water quality standards are for the waterbody in its entirety, there is some flexibility on how that minimum criterion is accomplished. In some cases, Remediation (#281) may be preferable to more stringent effluent standards. The criteria include specific biochemical and ecological measures that would be good indicators of ecological health, including Biocriteria (#282). NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Biocriteria; Chemical Variables; Cultural Services; Designated Uses; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Nutrients; Ocean Acidity; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria; Physical Variables; Provisioning Services; Toxics
Water Quality Management: Biocriteria The President�s Ocean Action Plan directed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to develop biological assessment methods and tools for evaluating the health of coral reefs so that States and Territories could more easily establish biological water quality standards, including descriptions for designated waterbody uses and biological criteria (biocriteria). Biocriteria are qualitative or quantitative thresholds of biological condition necessary to sustain the designated uses. Rigorous biological assessments are needed to identify metrics that reflect biological characteristics and are responsive to a gradient of human disturbance, and to generate defensible long-term monitoring programs. Implementation of biocriteria for freshwater ecosystems has forged a process that can be adopted for coral reefs. Bradley, P., L. Fore, W. Fisher, and W. Davis. 2010. Coral reef biological criteria: using the clean water act to protect a national treasure. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Narragansett, RI.

Biocriteria; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Designated Uses; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Resource Use Management
Waterway Management: Aquatic Organism Passage This management action allows for upstream and downstream passage for fish and other aquatic organisms. The passage of these organisms is often restricted by barriers which must be modified, removed, or worked around with fishways. Sites should be evaluated for variations in discharge, tidal influence, hydraulics, geomorphic impacts, sediment transport and continuity, and organic debris movement. Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2011. National Handbook of Conservation Practices. U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Civil Engineering & Construction; Dam Construction & Maintenance; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Landscape Changes; Landuse Management; Water Resources
Waterway Management: Mooring Buoy Management Installing mooring buoys is encouraged in order to prevent damage to corals from anchors. Areas that experience a lot of traffic from recreation and fishing will experience damage from vessel groundings and boat gear. Mooring buoys help to minimize damage to corals and at the same time provide access to water resources. Mooring buoys protect as well as lower resource-use conflicts. Mooring buoy management is achieved through maintaining existing mooring buoys; assessing current buoy technology; reviewing visitor-use and boating data; developing sitting criteria; recommending new sites; conducting site assessments; installing additional buoys; and implementing vessel size limits in high-use and sensitive areas. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Altmeier, Bernie. FKNMS Mooring Buoy Mainenance. NOAA: FKNMS Mooring Buoy Manual Accessed 3/23/2011.

The Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL) the Tour Opperators' Iniative (TOI) and The Center for Environmental Leadership in Business (CELB). 2003. A Practical Guide to Good Practice: Managing Environmental Impacts In The Marine Recreation Sector.

Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Contact Uses; Cultural Services; Designated Uses; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Physical Damage; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation; Water Resources; Water Transportation

Laws

Legal Citation Purpose of Law Management Organization Database Topics
Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987, 43 United States Code §§ 2101-2106. To establish title to certain abandoned shipwrecks. U. S. Government asserted three categories of abandoned shipwrecks; embedded in a State's submerged lands, embedded in corralline formations protected by a State on its submerged lands, located on a State's submerged lands and included or determined eligible for inclusion in the National Register of historic Places.

Application to Coral Reefs:The Act requires, but is not limited to, development by NPS of guidelines for States and Federal agencies to develop appropriate and consistant policies to protect national resources and habitat areas, and to provide for public and private sector recovery consistant with historical values and environmental integrety. Corralline structures are specifically protected by the Act.

Legislative Actions:Specific response will vary from Federal agency to Federal agency and State to State.

Comments:The NPS published non-binding, advisory guidelines for States and Federal agencies to establish, review, revise, and implement programs to manage shipwrecks under their ownership or control. The guidance is entitled "Abondoned Shipwreck Act Guidelines."   		National Park Service

Jurisdiction:
United States; US State Waters 		Artificial Habitat; Coral; Designated Uses; Marine Protected Areas; Public Administration; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Waste Management Policies; Wetlands
Clean Water Act of 1974, 33 United States Code § 1252. To restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters

Application to Coral Reefs:The Act can be used to establish water quality standards for the disharge of pollutants into surface waters. Section 101 (3) stated that it will be the national policy that the discharge of toxic pollutants in toxic amounts will be prohibited. The legislation employs a variety of regulatory and nonregulatory tools to reduce direct pollutant discharges into waterways, finance wastewater treatment facilities, and manage polluted runoff. The tools are employed to achieve the broad goal of restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters so they can support "the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and recreation in and on the water."

Legislative Actions:During the late 1980's, the program shifted from program-by-program, source by source, pollutant-by-pollutant approach to more holistic water-shed strategies. Under the watershed approach equal emphasis is placed on protecting healthy waters and restoring impaired waters. Also during the 1980's, voluntary programs for nonpoint runoff and regulatory programs for wet weather point sources began to be addressed.

Comments:The Federal Water Pollution Contrl Act Amendments of 1972, PL 92-500, replaced the previous language of the Act entirely, including the Water Quality Act of 1965, the Clean Water Restoration Act of 1965, and the Water Quality Improvement Act of 1970, all of which had been amendments of the Water Pollution Control Act first passed in 1956. The 1977 amendments, PL 95-217, further amended PL 92-500. 		US Environmental Protection Agency

Jurisdiction:
United States; US Territories 		Agriculture, Aquaculture, & Forestry Policies; Biocriteria; Collaboration & Partnering; Construction Codes & Projects; Corporate Responses; Drinking Water Supply; Economic Markets & Policies; Energy Policy & Development; Hydrologic Management; Improved Technology; Mangroves; Microorganisms; Non-point Source Controls; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Nutrients; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Point Source Discharges; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Sewage Treatment; Waste Management Policies; Wastewater Discharge
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, 16 United States Code §§ 1451-1456. Preserve, protect, develop, and where possible, to restore or enhance the resources of the Nation's coastal zone for this and succeeding generations.

Application to Coral Reefs:Protection of coastal areas can have an indirect influence on coral reef preservation and conservation by the use of environmentally sound construction and development by limiting runoff of contaminants and sediment that could have an adverse effect on inshore coral reefs if present.

Legislative Actions:In addition, the Act authorized a national system of estuarine sanctuaries and the establishment of national field laboratories with a 50/50 cost-sharing grants with coastal states.

Comments: 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/US Fish and Wildlife Service

Jurisdiction:
United States; State Coastal Waters 		City Planning; Coastal Development; Collaboration & Partnering; Construction Codes & Projects; Corporate Responses; Designated Uses; Economic Markets & Policies; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Funding & Incentives; Hydrologic Management; Landscape Changes; Landuse Management; Marine Debris; Marine Protected Areas; Non-point Source Controls; Nutrients; Permitting & Zoning; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Resource Use Management; Sediment; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation Policies; Waste Management Policies; Waterborne Discharges; Wetlands
Endangered Species Act of 1973, 16 United States Code §§ 1531-1544, 1361-1407. To protect animal and plant species currently in danger of extinction (endangered) and those that may become endangered in the foreseeable future (threatened). Authorized the determination and listing of species as endangered and threatened; Prohibited unauthorized taking, possession, sale, and transport of endangered species; Provided authority to acquire land for the conservation of listed species, using land and water conservation funds; Authorized establishment of cooperative agreements and grants-in-aid to states that establish and maintain active and adequate programs for endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; Authorized the assessment of civil and criminal penalties for violating the act or regulations; and Authorized the payment of rewards to anyone furnishing information leading to arrest and conviction for any violation of the act.

Application to Coral Reefs:Two species of coral are listed as threatened; elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) and staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis). They were placed on the list in 2006.Their habitat was listed as "critical habitat" in 2008.

Legislative Actions:The Act provided for criminal and civil penalties dependent on the sections of the Act under which violations occured. Criminal penalties may be imposed up to a maximum of $50,000 and not more than one year in prison. Civil penalties may be imposed up to a maximum of $25,000. The Act provided for rewards to citizens that report violations leading to sucessful prosecution. The rewards are paid from the fine received.

Comments:Listed species and critical habitats can be found in the Federal Register. The habitats for staghohn (73FR72210) and elkhorn (73FR72210) corals were declared critical in 2008. Since the entire coral reef is habitat for the species, critical designation could offer a method of protecting and conserving the reef. In this instance, by protecting individual species and their habitat, the entire reef is protected. 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration /National Marine Fisheries Service/USFish and Wildlife Service (consultations with all federal agncies responsible for section 7(a)(1) compliance

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Coral; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Public Administration; Resource Use Management
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Regulations; Anchoring on Tortugas Bank, Federal Register § Volume 63, Number 158 (1998). The regulation reinstates and makes permanent the temporary prohibition on anchoring by vessels 50 meters or greater in registered length on the Tortugas Bank west of the Dry Tortugas National Park within the Sanctuary.

Application to Coral Reefs:Prohibition on anchoring protects coral reefs and benthic habitats from physical damage.

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Jurisdiction:
US Coral Reefs; US Federal Waters; US State Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Commercial Fishing Boats; Complex Habitat & Resources; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Fish; Invertebrates; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Fishing; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Resource Use Management; Sediment; Substrate; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation Policies; Water Transportation
Identification of impaired surface waters, 62-303 Florida Administrative Code Annotated (2002). The Chapter established a methodology to identify surface waters of the state that will be included on the state's planning list of waters that will be assessed pursuant to subsections 403.067(2) and (3), Florida Statutes. It also establishes a methodology to identify impaired waters based on representative data that will be included on the state's verified list of impaired waters, for which the Department will calculate Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDLs), pursuant to subsection 403.067(4), F.S., and which will be submitted to the United States Environmental Protection Agency pursuant to paragraph 303(d)(1) of the Clean Water Act (CWA).

Application to Coral Reefs:By regulating the amount of pollutants that will be allowed to be discharged into major waterbodies of the state, the amount of pollutants reaching estuarine and then marine environments, and eventually coral reefs, will assist in protecting the reefs and other habitats.

Legislative Actions:The planning list of impaired water bodies has been completed. Data on each water bodies has been collected. DEP is in the process of calculating TMDLs for each water body.

Comments: 		Florida Department of Environmental Protection

Jurisdiction:
State Coastal Waters 		Agriculture, Aquaculture, & Forestry Policies; Construction Codes & Projects; Corporate Responses; Designated Uses; Fertilizer & Pesticide Use; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Forestry; Irrigation; Landscaping & Household Services; Landuse Management; Metals, Electronics, & Machinery Products; Microorganisms; Mining; Non-point Source Runoff; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Nutrients; Oil & Gas Research & Exploration; Point Source Discharges; Sewage Treatment; Solid Waste Disposal; Waste Management Policies; Wastewater Discharge; Wood, Plastics, & Chemical Products
Marine Mammals, 50 Code of Federal Regulations. The regulations prohibit the capture of marine mammals on land or sea in US waters and prohibits the improtation of any marine mammal product to the US (CFR 216.11-216.12) unless the person has a permit for scientific purposes (CFR 216.33-216.37).

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Oceanic Aatmospheric Administration/National Marine Fisheries Service

Jurisdiction:
US Federal Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Commercial Fisheries; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Political Pressure; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Whales & Dolphins
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972, 33 United States Code § 1401. To regulate the dumping of all types of materials into ocean waters and to prevent or strictly limit the dumping into ocean waters of any material which would adversely affect human health, welfare, or amenities, or the marine environment, ecological systems, or economic potentialities. To regulate (1) the transportation by any person of material from the United States and, in the case of United States vessels, aircraft, or agencies, the transportation of material from a location outside the United States, when in either case the transportation is for the purpose of dumping the material into ocean waters, and (2) the dumping of material transported by any person from a location outside the United States, if the dumping occurs in the territorial sea or the contiguous zone of the United States.

Application to Coral Reefs:The Act has been historically used to regulate dumping of dredged materials and sewage sludge into the marine environment. The law intends to improve the conservation, understanding, management, and wise and sustainable use of marine resources, enhance public awareness, understanding, and appreciation of the marine environment, and to maintain for future generations the habitat, and ecologigal services, of the natural assemblage of living resources that inhabit those areas. Because permits are required, it can be assumed that dumping would not be allowed if the material would be dispersed into a sensitive habitat such as coral reefs.

Legislative Actions:EPA may assess an administrative civil penalty up to $50,000 per person. Higher penalties can be assessed for dumping medical waste (up to $125,000). Each day in violation constitutes a separate offense. Continuing violations can suffer criminal penalties with fines and up to five years imprisionment possible.

Comments:The Act has played a major role in regulating the disposal of dredged material into the ocean environment. However, medical and radioactive wastes, industrial wastes, as well as sewage sludge, are also regulated in the law. 		United States Environmntal Protection Agency

Jurisdiction:
US Territorial Waters; US Federal Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Ballast Discharge; Biocriteria; Boating Regulations; Complex Habitat & Resources; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Mangroves; Marine Debris; Marine Protected Areas; Microorganisms; Non-point Source Controls; Oil & Gas Research & Exploration; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Political Pressure; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Sediment; Sewage Treatment; Solid Waste Disposal; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation Policies; Waste Management Policies; Wastewater Discharge
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 42 United States Code §§ 4321-4377. Requires analysis, public comment, and reporting for environmental impacts of federal actions. It stipulates the factors to be considered in environmental impact statements, and requires that federal agencies employ an interdisciplinary approach in related decision-making and develop means to ensure unqualified environmental values are given appropriate consideration, along with economic and technical considerations.

Application to Coral Reefs:Requires an Environmental Assessment(EA), and potentially an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) if the project review finds there will be a significant impact. The EIS must detail the environmental impacts of the proposed action, unavoidable adverse environmental impacts, and alternatives to the proposed action. The resulting studies could protect sensitive environmental ecosystems, including coral reefs.

Legislative Actions:The Act potentially could protect coral reefs if the proposed federal project could have a significant impact on the reef.

Comments:The Act is completely procedural; it does not include specific regulations. The Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) was created by the Act. CEQ is part of the Executive Office of the President and one of the CEQ directives is to ensure that federal programs comply with NEPA. The puprose of the EIS is to disclose to the public and resource managers the probable long- and short-term impacts of the proposed project as well as consideration of less environmentally damaging alternatives to the recommended course of action. 		Federal agencies

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Agriculture, Aquaculture, & Forestry Policies; Biocriteria; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Regulations; Construction Codes & Projects; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Economic Markets & Policies; Energy Policy & Development; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Landuse Management; Marine Debris; Microorganisms; Non-point Source Controls; Permitting & Zoning; Physical & Chemical Environment; Physical Variables; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Reef Life; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Sectors Filling Human Needs; Security; Socio-Economic Drivers; Transportation Policies; Waste Management Policies; Wetlands
National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, 16 United States Code § 470. Congress established the federal government a full partner and a leader in historic preservation. The Act provides leadership for preservation, contributes to and give maximum encouragement to preservation and foster conditions under which our modern society and our prehistoric and historic resources can exist in productive harmony

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Park Service as administrator and all Federal agencies participating

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Designated Uses; Public Administration; Resource Use Management
National Marine Sanctuaries Act of 1972, 16 United States Code §§ 1431-1445. Authorizes the Secretary of Commerce to designate and manage areas of the marine environment with special national significance due to their conservation, recreational, ecological, historical, scientific, cultural, archeological, educational, or esthetic qualities as National Marine Sanctuaries.

Application to Coral Reefs:Protects marine resources, such as coral reefs, sunken historical vessels, or unique habitats.

Legislative Actions:NOAA may impose civil penalties up tp $130,000 per day per violation. Criminal penalties were added in the 2000 amendments for interfering or resisting with any enforcement of the NMSA, or providing false information to the Secretary or any officer authorized to enforce NMSA. The 2000 amendments made it illegal to offer for sale, purchase, import, or export, any sanctuary resource and increased enforcement authority.

Comments:There are 13 marine sanctuaries in the National Marine Sactuary System, six of which were created after 1990. Each sanctuary has a separarte staff and program in its local region. 		National Oceanic Aatmospheric Administration

Jurisdiction:
Designated Marine Areas 		Apex Fish Predators; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Regulations; CO2; Coastal Development; Commercial Fishing Boats; Coral; Corporate Responses; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Large Ships; Marine Birds; Marine Protected Areas; Nutrients; Ocean Acidity; Oil & Gas Research & Exploration; Political Pressure; Recreational Opportunities; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Sediment; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Wetlands
National Park Service General Partnership Authorities of 1970, 16 United States Code § 1. The Act supplemented and clarified the National Park Service's mandate with respect to the management of the National Park System.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Park Service

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Regulations; Designated Uses; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Opportunities; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation Policies
National Park Service Organic Act of 1916, 16 United States Code § 1. The Act was created to start the National Park Service within the Department of Interior for the purpose of promoting and regulating the use of federal areas such as national parks and monuments.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:Created the National Park Service to be supervised by a Director.

Comments: 		National Park Service

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Boating Regulations; Collaboration & Partnering; Construction Codes & Projects; Designated Uses; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invasive Species; Landuse Management; Marine Protected Areas; Microorganisms; Permitting & Zoning; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation Policies
National Park Service, Department of Interior,. To conserve the scenery, natural and historic objects, and wildlife of the National Parks; and to provide for the enjoyment of those resources in a sustainable manner. Regulations provide for the proper use, management, government, and protection of persons, property, and natural and cultural resources within areas under the jurisdiction of the National Park Service.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Park Service

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Regulations; Construction Codes & Projects; Deforestation & Devegetation; Designated Uses; Economic Markets & Policies; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Landuse Management; Mangroves; Marine Debris; Marine Protected Areas; Permitting & Zoning; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation Policies
National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966, 16 United States Code § 66. The Act defines the National Wildlife Refuge System and authorizes the Secretary of Interior to permit any use of a refuge provided such use is compatible with the major purpose for which the refuge was established.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		US Fish and Wildlife Serice

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Construction Codes & Projects; Designate Protected Species; Designated Uses; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Funding & Donations; Landuse Management; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria; Political Pressure; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation Policies
National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997, 16 United States Code § 668. Amends the National Wildlife Refuge System Act of 1966. This Act defines the mission of the National Wildlife Refuge System, establishes the legitimacy and appropriateness of six priority wildlife-dependent public uses, establishes a formal process for determining compatible uses of Refuge System lands, identifies the Secretary of the Interior as responsible for managing and protecting the Refuge System, and requires the development of comprehensive conservation plan for all refuges outside of Alaska.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		US Fish and Wildlife Serice

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Designated Uses; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Resource Use Management; Security & Public Administration Policies
Surface water quality standards, 62-302 Florida Administrative Code Annotated (2008). The Chapter establishes the minimum concentrations of contamination that are allowable to protect the designated uses of a waterbody. Designated uses include public drinking water supplies, propagation of fish and wildlife, agricultural, recreation, industrial, and navigation.

Application to Coral Reefs:Protecting surface waters by limiting the concentration of pollutants that can be present will control the concentrations of those pollutants that will reach estuarine and marine environments, thus protecting the associated ecosystems, including coral reefs.

Legislative Actions:Penalties are not presented in the Rule. Specific requirements and penalties are addrressed in individual permits. The Rule relies heavily on biocriteria including acute toxicity, chronic toxicity, Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index. Section 400 presents the classes of Florida waters; Class I potable water supplies, Class II shellfish propagation or harvesting, Class III recreation, propagation and maintenance of a healthy, well-balanced population of fish and wildlife, Class IV agricultural water supplies, Class V navigation, utility and industrial use.

Comments: 		Florida Department of Environmental Protection

Jurisdiction:
State Coastal Waters; US State Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Biocriteria; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Civil Engineering & Construction; Coastal Development; Commercial Fisheries; Complex Habitat & Resources; Dam Construction & Maintenance; Deforestation & Devegetation; Designate Protected Species; Discharge Limitations; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Docks & Marinas; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Drinking Water Supply; Fertilizer & Pesticide Use; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Impervious Surfaces; Invertebrates; Irrigation; Landuse Management; Molluscs; Non-point Source Controls; Non-point Source Runoff; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Nutrients; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria; Pipelines; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Point Source Discharges; Ports & Harbors; Recreational Fishing; Sediment; Sewage Treatment; Shoreline Armoring; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Toxics; Waste Management Policies
The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and Protection Act, Public Law 101-605 (H.R. 5909 United States Code (1990). To protect the resources of the area delineated in section 5(b) of the Act, to educate and interpret for the public regarding the Florida Keys marine environment, and to manage such human uses of the Sanctuary consistent with the Act. Nothing in the Act is intended to restrict activities that do not cause adverse effects to the resources or property of the Sanctuary or that do not pose harm to the users of the Sanctuary.

Application to Coral Reefs:The Sanctuary sets aside the coral reef system that is the thrid largest coral reef barrier in the world. Included in the FKNMS are Key Largo Marine Sanctuary containing 103 square nautical miles of coral reefs and Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary containing 5.32 squared nautical miles of coral reefs.The Act protects the reefs from anchoring directly into the coral formation and taking coral dead or alive in the Sanctuary. From Miami to the Marquesas Keys there are over 6000 patch reefs. The Act also protects mangrove islands and submerged aquatic vegetation, both potential buffers for the reef system against eutrophication and sediment deposition. The Act prohibits oil and hydrocarbon exploration, mining or altering the seabed, restricts large shipping traffic, and restricts the discharge of pollutants, futher protecting mangroves, and submerged aquatic vegetation.

Legislative Actions:The Act required the preparation of a comprehensive mangement plan and implementing regulations to protect Sanctuary resources.

Comments:Large vessel groundings on coral reefs in the Florida Keys was a major driver for the designation of the Sanctuary. In 1989, there were three groundings of large commercial vessels on the coral reef tract within an eighteen day period. 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration as lead agency and Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission, and Monroe County as Co-Trustees

Jurisdiction:
US Coral Reefs; US Federal Waters; US State Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Ballast Discharge; Boating Regulations; Complex Habitat & Resources; Coral; Economic Markets & Policies; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Large Ships; Marine Debris; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Opportunities; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Reef Life; Shoreline Protection; Substrate; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Water Transportation
Water Resources Planning Act of 1965, as amended through 2000, 42 United States Code § 1692. Established the Water Resources Council to be comprised of Cabinet representatives, including the Secretary of the Interior. The Council reviews river basin plans with respect to agricultural, urban, energy, industrial, recreational, and fish and wildlife needs. The Act also established a grant program to assist states in participating in the development of comprehensive water and land use plans.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		US Fish and Wildlife Service

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Agriculture; Designated Uses; Economic Markets & Policies; Natural Gas & Electric Power; Reef Life; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation
Wetland applications, 62-611 Florida Administrative Code Annotated (1996). To provide qualitative and quantitative design criteria discharge limits, permitting requirements, and monitoring requirements for wetlands, man-made and natural, receiving domestic wastewater.

Application to Coral Reefs:Because wetlands act as buffers and remove nutrients from contaminated water, in many case the nutrients will not reach the estuarine and marine environments and potentially have an adverse effect on coral reefs.

Legislative Actions:The Rule is administrative in nature and specific pollutant limits and monitoring requirements are specified in individual permits

Comments: 		Florida Department of Environmental Protection

Jurisdiction:
State Coastal Waters 		Agriculture, Aquaculture, & Forestry Policies; City Planning; Construction Codes & Projects; Environmental Education & Outreach; Hydrologic Management; Landuse Management; Mangroves; Nutrients; Pipelines; Point Source Discharges; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Sewage Treatment; Waste Management Policies; Wastewater Discharge
Wilderness Act of 1964, 16 United States Code §§ 1131-1136. Directs the Secretary of the Interior to review every roadless area of 5,000 acres or more and every roadless island regardless of size within the National Wildlife Refuge System, and to recommend suitability of each such areas. The Act permits certain activities within designated wilderness areas that do not alter natural processes. Wilderness values are preserved through a "minimum tool" management approach, which requires refuge managers to use the least intrusive methods, equipment, and facilities necessary for administering areas.

Application to Coral Reefs:

Legislative Actions:Specific wilderness areas, Acreages, and establishing legislation are listed in -Annual Report of Lands Under Control of the USFWS-available from the Division of Realty, USFWS.

Comments: 		US Fish and Wildlife Service

Jurisdiction:
United States 		Designated Uses; Resource Use Management

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