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Invertebrate Harvest

Invertebrate Harvest

Invertebrate Harvesting is the act of collecting marine invertebrates, including sponges, lobsters, and other invertebrates, for seafood or other marine products.

CMap

Accidental by-catch is damage or harvest of non-target species, including fish or marine vertebrates, by fishing gear while collecting targeted species. Algae are aquatic, photosynthetic plant-like organisms and include calcareous macroalgae, fleshy macroalgae, turf algae, and crustose coralline algae. Anemones & zooanthids are cnidarians very similar to coral, but are not characteristic reef builders. Aquarium and Pet Trade involves the preservation and exhibition of aquatic species for public view or individual hobbies, and the sale of animals. Biological Harvest is the collection of living things from the ecosystem for recreation, consumption, or sale of marine products. Boating Regulations are restrictions placed on boating activities to promote safety for boaters and the natural environment, and can include mooring buoys, registration and licensing, and speed limits. Complex habitat and resources reflects the complex architecture of sessile, plant-like organisms, such as octocoral and sponges, which provides shelter and protection for small fish and other invertebrates from predators. Contact Uses, such as biological additions, physical damage, and biological harvesting, are activities in which humans create pressures through direct contact with the ecosystem. Coral is a colonial marine animal consisting of polyps. Cultural policies are responses that impact the distribution and functioning of cultural sectors, including tourism, recreation, education, and social organization. Cultural services are the nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, recreational opportunities, aesthetic experiences, sense of place, and educational and research opportunities. Culture sectors contribute to the social, emotional, and intellectual well-being of the community. Designated uses are a state's concise statements of its management objectives and expectations for each of the individual surface waters under its jurisdiction. The Dive, Snorkeling, and Swimming Tourism sector includes businesses that provide equipment, instruction, and location to allow tourists to swim, snorkel, and SCUBA dive. Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems . Finfish and shellfish stock are fish (e.g., groupers and snappers) and invertebrates (e.g., lobster, crab, conch, octopus, squid, and bivalves) that are harvested for human consumption as seafood. Fishing is the activity of catching fish for recreational, commercial, or artesanal purposes using any of a variety of fishing gear, including nets, spear guns, or hook and line. Fish are cold-blooded aquatic vertebrates that breathe through gills and usually have scales. Fisheries and hunting policies control who can fish, harvest and hunt. Fishing & harvesting management controls the activities which harvest fish and invertebrates, including commercial and recreational fishing. The Fishing Sector includes the harvesting of fish for food and recreation. The Food and Raw Materials sector includes groups that harvest natural resources from the earth, including agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, forestry, mining, and the oil and gas industry. The Health sector includes groups which provide for human health through medical and social care, and maintenance and disposal of waste. Invertebrate Harvesting is the act of collecting marine invertebrates, including sponges, lobsters, and other invertebrates, for seafood or other marine products. An Invertebrate is any animal that lacks a backbone. Live collection is the collection of colorful or unique species from marine environments, particularly for the marine ornamental industry (e.g., aquariums). Marine products are non-food goods derived from reefs that promote human well-being (e.g, aquarium fish or ornamental resources) and human health (e.g., pharmaceuticals and cosmetics). Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are Any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, tribal, territorial, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein. Marine vertebrates are aquatic animals with a backbone, such as sea turtles, whales, dolphins and marine birds. Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics industries are engaged in manufacturing drugs, medicines and related products for human or animal use. The Reef Ecosystem includes a suite of abiotic variables that form the physical and chemical environment. Pressures are human activities that create stress on the environment. Provisioning services are the products or ecosystem goods obtained from ecosystems, including seafood, genetic and biochemical resources, pharmaceuticals, ornamental resources, and water resources. Aesthetic & recreational value pertains to the value derived from the visual beauty and recreational opportunities provided by a natural ecosystem, including an assemblage of diverse, healthy, colorful, or unique species. The state of the Reef Ecosystem is the condition, in terms of quantity and quality, of the abiotic and biotic components including physical, chemical, and biological variables. Reef Habitat is the abundance, distribution, and condition of the benthic components of the reef ecosystem. Reef Inhabitants are all of the motile components of the reef ecosystem, including fish, invertebrates, marine reptiles and mammals, and are quantified by their abundance, distribution, and condition. Reef Life is the abundance, distribution, and condition of the biological components of the coral reef ecosystem. Resource use management pertains to responses to regulate or limit contact activities that may directly impact coastal species through harvesting or physical damage. Responses are actions taken by groups or individuals in society and government to prevent, compensate, ameliorate or adapt to changes in Ecosystem Services or their perceived value. Security policies include all actions that ensure the public is safe and secure. Socio-Economic Drivers include the sectors that fulfill human needs for Food & Raw Materials, Water, Shelter, Health, Culture, and Security, and the Infrastructure that supports the sectors. The Souvenir and Decorative Trade is involved in producing and selling souvenirs and novelty decorative items, including those derived from marine products. Sponges are sessile colonial animals with soft porous bodies supported by a fibrous skeletal framework. Supporting services are ecological processes that indirectly benefit humans by maintaining a functional ecosystem for the production of other ecosystem goods and services.

CMap Description

Harvesting of fish and invertebrates creates pressures on the reef ecosystem. Non-target species may be harvested or damaged as well during fishing activities. Overfishing of key species, particularly herbivores, can cause trophic cascades which increase the risk of algal overgrowth. The socio-economic sectors which create pressures on the reef ecosystem through harvesting are the same sectors which depend on the reef for recreational value, finfish and shellfish, and other marine products. These sectors also indirectly benefit from the complex structure formed by coral, seagrasses, and mangroves which provide food and habitat for target species of fish and invertebrates. Decision-makers can manage resources through fishing & harvesting policies which limit or direct fishing activities, designating protected areas, designating protected species, or increasing law enforcement to reduce illegal harvest.

Citations

Citation Year Study Location Study Type Database Topics
Murugan, A; Dhanya, S; Sarcar, AB; Naganathan, V; Rajagopal, S; Balasubramanian, T. 2011. Fishery biology, demography of three spotted seahorse, Hippocampus trimaculatus inhabiting Gulf of Mannar region, Southeast coast of India. Indian journal of GeoMarine Sciences 40:411-423. 2011 India Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Seagrasses; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Barnes, D. K. A. and K. A. Rawlinson. 2009. Traditional coastal invertebrate fisheries in south-western Madagascar. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 89:1589-1596. 2009 Madagascar Echinoderms; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates; Molluscs; Octopus & Squid
Gallaway, B. J., S. T. Szedlmayer, and W. J. Gazey. 2009. A life history review for red snapper in the Gulf of Mexico with an evaluation of the importance of offshore petroleum platforms and other artificial reefs. Reviews in Fisheries Science 17:48-67. 2009 South & Central America; Mexico Review Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Artificial Habitat; Complex Habitat & Resources; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Oil & Gas Rigs; Piscivorous Fish
Jeffers, S. A., W. F. Patterson III, and J. H. Cowan Jr. 2008. Habitat and bycatch effects on population parameters of inshore lizardfish (Synodus foetens) in the north central Gulf of Mexico. Fishery Bulletin 106:417-426. 2008 South & Central America; Mexico Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Artificial Habitat; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Skeletal Coral; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Stevely, J. and D. Sweat. 2008. Exploring the potential and protecting the resources: Florida's marine sponges. Sea Grant, Gainesville, FL. 2008 Florida Commercial Fisheries; Cultural Policies; Cultural Protections; Fishing Sector; Hotel & Food Services; Invertebrate Harvest; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Museums, Amusement Parks, Historical Sites; Sponges
Wells, R. J. D., J. H. Cowan Jr., and W. F. Patterson III. 2008. Habitat use and the effect of shrimp trawling on fish and invertebrate communities over the northern Gulf of Mexico continental shelf. ICES Journal of Marine Science 65:1610-1619. 2008 Global; South & Central America; Mexico Index or Indicator Algae; Anemones & Zooanthids; Fish; Invertebrate Harvest; Skeletal Coral; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Wells, R. J. D., J. H. Cowan Jr., W. F. Patterson III, and C. J. Walters. 2008. Effect of trawling on juvenile red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) habitat selection and life history parameters. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 65:2399-2411. 2008 South & Central America; Mexico Complex Habitat & Resources; Fish; Invertebrate Harvest; Piscivorous Fish; Skeletal Coral; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Calado, R. 2006. Marine ornamental species from European waters: A valuable overlooked resource or a future threat for the conservation of marine ecosystems? Scientia Marina 70:389-398. 2006 Europe Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Wholesale & Retail Trade
Salin, K. R., T. M. Yohannan, and C. Mohanakumaran Nair. 2005. Fisheries and trade of seahorses, Hippocampus spp., in southern India. Fisheries Management and Ecology 12:269-273. 2005 India; Malaysia; United Arab Emirates Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Echinoderms; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics; Sponges; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Workman, I. K. and D. G. Foster. 2002. The webbing reef: A tool used in the study of juvenile red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus). Pages 146-150 in Oceans Conference Record (IEEE). 2002 South & Central America; Florida; Mexico Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates; Piscivorous Fish
Pugliese, R. 1998. Final habitat plan for the South Atlantic Region. South Atlantic Fishery Management Council, Charleston, SC. 1998 Florida; US East Coast (NC, SC, GA) Field Study & Monitoring; Model Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Agriculture; Aquaculture; Commercial Fisheries; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Fleshy Macroalgae; Invertebrate Harvest; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Mangroves; Monetary Valuation; Nutrients; Oil & Gas Research & Exploration; Piscivorous Fish; Recreational Fishing; Seagrasses; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Wassenberg, T. J., C. Y. Burridge, M. Connell, and N. Gribble. 1998. A validation of short-duration scientific tows as a representation of long commercial-length tows: Comparing the catch rates, size composition and species composition of prawn trawler bycatch in the far northern Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Fisheries Research 36:35-46. 1998 Australia Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates
Link, J. 1997. Untrawlable bottom in shrimp statistical zones of the northwest Gulf of Mexico. Marine Fisheries Review 59:33-36. 1997 South & Central America; Mexico Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Wassenberg, T. J., S. J. M. Blaber, C. Y. Burridge, D. T. Brewer, J. P. Salini, and N. Gribble. 1997. The effectiveness of fish and shrimp trawls for sampling fish communities in tropical Australia. Fisheries Research 30:241-251. 1997 Florida; Australia Decision Support Frameworks & Tools Apex Fish Predators; Fish; Invertebrate Harvest; Recreational Fishing; Tourism & Recreation
Wantiez, L., M. Harmelin-Vivien, and M. Kulbicki. 1996. Spatial and temporal variation in a soft-bottom fish assemblage in St Vincent Bay, New Caledonia. Marine Biology 125:801-812. 1996 New Caledonia Fish; Invertebrate Harvest; Small Herbivorous Fish; Storms & Hurricanes; Substrate
Baqueiro C., E. and R. Mendez L. 1994. Artificial reefs: an alternative to enhance Mexican littoral commercial fisheries. Bulletin of Marine Science 55:1014-1020. 1994 South & Central America; Mexico Artificial Habitat; Commercial Fisheries; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest
Watson, R. A. and C. T. Turnbull. 1993. Migration and growth of two tropical penaeid shrimps within Torres Strait, northern Australia. Fisheries Research 17:353-368. 1993 Australia Commercial Fisheries; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp
Keats, D. 1992. Sodwana Bay: a coral paradise. African Wildlife 46:124-125. 1992 Fish; Hydrocoral; Invertebrate Harvest; Octocoral; Plankton; Small Herbivorous Fish; Stony Coral; Storms & Hurricanes; Tourism & Recreation
Gutherz, E. J. and G. J. Pellegrin. 1988. Estimate of the catch of red snapper, Lutjanus campechanus, by shrimp trawlers in the US Gulf of Mexico. Marine Fisheries Review 50:17-25. 1988 South & Central America; Mexico Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Piscivorous Fish

Management Options

Management Option Description Sources Database Topics
Agriculture & Aquaculture: Bivalve Aquaculture Biofouling Control These management options reduce, clean or remove biofouling organisms and other waste from bivalve production areas while minimizing environmental risk. Aquaculture shellfish production requires adequate food availability and water of dependable quantity and quality. Aquaculture operations and gear must have a minimal adverse impact on the surrounding water, plant, animal and human resources. Biofouling is detrimental to shellfish production, increasing exposure to pathogens, reducing the available food stuffs, and increasing organic loading. Only environmentally appropriate biofoul control methods should be used, and fouling organisms and algae should be disposed of appropriately to avoid local degradation. Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2011. National Handbook of Conservation Practices. U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2011. Conservation Practice Standard: Bivalve Aquaculture Gear and Biofouling Control. CODE 400, USDA.

Algae; Aquaculture; Arthropods; Artificial Habitat; Biological Addition; Biological Harvest; Bivalves; Chemical Variables; Discharge Limitations; Domestic Animal Waste; Escape & Release of Non-natives; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Food & Energy Policies; Food & Raw Materials; Improved Technology; Invertebrate Harvest; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Molluscs; Non-point Source Controls; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Octopus & Squid; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Snails & Conch; Supplemental Feeding
Economic Markets & Policy: Regulate International Trade of Reef Species Many coral reef species are harvested internationally for a variety of markets including the aquarium trade, food, curios, jewelry and pharmaceuticals. The US is the largest importer for many of these markets. The US strictly limits extraction of stony coral and many reef species in its waters; but as a major importer and consumer of coral reef species, more actions can be taken to decrease the demand on international imports. Setting and enforcing regulations on what can be imported (such as Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species CITES) is one approach that has been taken. More information is needed, leaving room to collect trade data and assess the impacts of extraction techniques to find sustainable methods. Demand for species collected this way will be increased with greater transparency to consumers, which can be accomplished through certifications for environmentally cognoscente collectors and those using alternatives like aquaculture and coral farming. Continued participation in Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) is also beneficial. U.S. Coral Reef Task Force. 2000. International Trade in Coral and Coral Reef Species: The Role of the United States. Report of the Trade Subgroup of the International Working Group to the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force, Washington, D.C.

World Resource Institute International Marinelife Alliance, editor. 1997. Sullied Seas. WRI, Washington D.C.

U.S. Coral Reef Task Force. 2000. The National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs. Washington, D.C.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquaculture; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Collaboration & Partnering; Coral; Corporate Responses; Cultural Policies; Designate Protected Species; Economic Markets & Policies; Environmental Education & Outreach; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates; Live Collection; Manufacturing & Trade; Manufacturing & Trade Policies; Marine Products; Ornamental Jewelry & Art; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics Sources; Political Pressure; Souvenir & Decorative Trade; Sponges; Stony Coral; Toxics; Wholesale & Retail Trade
Environmental Education: Deliver Non-Enforcement Resource Eductaion at the Resource Site Voluntary compliance (#50) is the most desirable form of site protection. Lack of compliance often occurs unintentionally, due to a lack of knowledge and understanding. Law enforcement plays a role by ensuring rules are appropriately followed, but often the preventative component of this enforcement becomes secondary, especially on high use days/areas. Volunteers can assist by answering questions and talking to people recreating about the reef, reef resources, and how to appropriately recreate. Volunteers can watch to ensure people are acting appropriately, that boaters do not go too close to shallow reefs, and that groundings do not occur. Programs such as Team OCEAN have contributed over 15,000 hours to such activities. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Beaches & Nature Parks; Boat Movement; Boating Activities; Collaboration & Partnering; Cultural Policies; Culture; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Education & Information; Environmental Education & Outreach; Finfish Harvest; Invertebrate Harvest; Marine Debris; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Social Organizations; Sunscreen Use; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Trampling
Evaluating Fishing Gear/Method Impacts: Evaluate impacts of existing fishing gear and methods on habitats Research is needed to investigate impact on habitat of commercial and recreation fishing gear and methods. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Biological Harvest; Boating Activities; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Coral; Culture; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Food & Raw Materials; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Physical Damage; Pressures; Recreational Fishing; Reef Habitat; Reef Life; Resource Use Management; Responses; Sectors Filling Human Needs; Socio-Economic Drivers; Tourism & Recreation; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Evaluating Fishing Gear/Method Impacts: Conduct research on the ecological impacts on sanctuary preservation areas of baiting fishing and catch-and-release fishing by trolling It is necessary to asses the ecological effects of catch�and-release fishing by trolling and bait-fishing in order to make informed decisions regarding their provisions in protected areas. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Aquaculture; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Activities; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Coral; Culture; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Food & Raw Materials; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Physical Damage; Pressures; Recreational Fishing; Reef Habitat; Reef Life; Resource Use Management; Responses; Sectors Filling Human Needs; Socio-Economic Drivers; Tourism & Recreation; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Fishing & Harvesting Management: Research Low-impact Fishing Gear & Methods Facilitating research to develop gear designs and fishing methods that minimize impacts is multifaceted. Ideal fishing gear is selective for the target species and sizes, with negligible direct or indirect impact on non-target species, sizes and habitats; but also efficient, giving quality, high catches at the lowest possible cost. Newly developed low-impact gear allows fishermen to fulfill their needs, providing food and income, while lessening the unintended environmental impact of those activities, like by-catch. Before an agency should promote new fishing gear or methods research is important to ensure there are no un-intended environmental tradeoffs. Biodegradable fishing line, modified traps, and buoy lines are examples of gear types that could be studied. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Seas At Risk. 2009. Moving Towards Low Impact Fisheries In Europe Policy Hurdles & Actions.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Boat Movement; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Improved Technology; Invasive Species; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Marine Debris; Physical Damage; Recreational Fishing; Reef Habitat; Resource Use Management; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Marine Zoning: Sanctuary Preservation Areas (SPAs) This is a type of Marine Zoning used by the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). SPAs focus on the protection of shallow, heavily used reefs where conflicts occur between user groups, and where concentrated visitor activity leads to resource degradation. They are designed to enhance the reproductive capabilities of renewable resources, protect areas critical for sustaining and protecting important marine species, and reduce user conflicts in high-use areas. This is accomplished through a prohibition of consumptive activities within these areas. They have been chosen based on the status of important habitat, the ability of a particular area to sustain and protect the habitat, the level of visitor use, and the degree of conflict between consumptive and non-consumptive users. The actual size and location of these zones have been determined by examination of user patterns, aerial photography, and ground-truthing of specific habitats. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Aquaculture; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Artisanal Fishing; Beaches & Nature Parks; Biological Addition; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Boat Movement; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Coastal Defense; Coastal Development; Coastal Engineering; Commercial Fisheries; Commercial Fishing Boats; Complex Habitat & Resources; Cruise Ships; Cultural Services; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Educational & Research Opportunities; Entertainment & Accommodation Services; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Landscape Changes; Large Ships; Live Collection; Marine Protected Areas; Oil & Gas Tankers; Ornamental Jewelry & Art; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Public Administration; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Security; Small Boats; Souvenir & Decorative Trade; Supporting Services; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Trampling; Travel Services & Tour Operators; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage; Water Resources; Water Transportation
Marine Zoning: Ecological Reserves (ERs) Ecological Reserves set aside areas with minimal human interference. These reserves aim to enhance and protect biodiversity through encompassing large, contiguous habitats. The goal of ecological reserves is to encourage spawning, nurseries, and residence areas that contribute to genetic protection of fish and marine life. Ecological Reserves can be achieved through a variety of methods such as: placing/maintaining buoys along zone boundaries; adjusting boundaries if necessary; evaluating allowable activities within zone boundaries; identifying potential areas that need additional zoning; reviewing the effectiveness of the zoning; and revising NOAA and GIS charts. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Biochemical & Genetic Resources; Biological Addition; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Coastal Defense; Commercial Fishing Boats; Complex Habitat & Resources; Cruise Ships; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Dredging Regulations; Dredging, Draining, & Filling; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Environmental Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Large Ships; Live Collection; Marine Protected Areas; Oil & Gas Tankers; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Provisioning Services; Resource Use Management; Security Policies; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation; Trampling; Water Transportation
Public Participation: Assist Seafood Watch Assist Seafood Watch and other sustainable seafood consumption initiatives, in their efforts to educate the public and promote sustainable seafood. The Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL) the Tour Opperators' Iniative (TOI) and The Center for Environmental Leadership in Business (CELB). 2003. A Practical Guide to Good Practice: Managing Environmental Impacts In The Marine Recreation Sector.

SeafoodWatch. 2005. Sustainable Seafood Business Practices. Monteray Bay.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Aquaculture; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Collaboration & Partnering; Commercial Fisheries; Corallivorous Fish; Environmental Education & Outreach; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Food & Raw Materials; Invertebrate Harvest; Large Herbivorous Fish; Live Collection; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Molluscs; Provisioning Services; Recreational Fishing; Sectors Filling Human Needs
Regulatory Review and Development: Evaluate Fishing Gear/Fishing Methods Regulations In most regions there are already regulations that prohibit fishing methods that incorporate explosives, poisons, oil, and bleach. Further investigation may reveal additional methods, materials, or gear that should be prohibited as well. Regulations should aim to increase the use of low-impact gear (#194) in place of more destructive gear and methods. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Cochrane, K.L., editor. 2002. A Fishery Manager's Guidebook. Management Measures and their application. Fisheries Technical Paper 424, FAO, Rome.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Biological Harvest; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Decision Support; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Physical Damage; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Security & Public Administration Policies; Toxics; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Resource Use Management: Seasonal Fisheries and Harvesting Finfish and shellfish stocks may be more or less susceptible to fishing pressures during certain times of the year. This may be due to seasonality of recruitment and/or changes in food/predation pressures. If fishing restrictions may be more successful if this seasonality is taken into consideration and fishing pressure adjusted accordingly. Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Artisanal Fishing; Biochemical & Genetic Resources; Biological Harvest; Bivalves; Commercial Fisheries; Corallivorous Fish; Decision Support; Echinoderms; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertivorous Fish; Large Herbivorous Fish; Live Collection; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Products; Molluscs; Octopus & Squid; Permitting & Zoning; Piscivorous Fish; Planktivorous Fish; Provisioning Services; Recreational Fishing; Small Herbivorous Fish; Snails & Conch; Sponges; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Resource Use Management: Fisheries Management Enforcement Marine protected areas and other types of coastal zone management areas have fisheries management policies that must be enforced in addition to the broader Statues, Regulation and Permit Requirements (#91). Illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing is a major problem worldwide. Management area policies must be enforced to have an impact on the fisheries stock. Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Boating Activities; Boating Regulations; Commercial Fisheries; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Marine Protected Areas; Mitigation; Permitting & Zoning; Physical Damage; Public Administration; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Security Policies; Special Use Permitting; Tourism & Recreation; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Resource Use Management: Fisheries Catch Quotas Quotas designate the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) allocated to an operating unit such as a country, a vessel, a company or an individual fisherman (individual quota) depending on the system of allocation. Quotas may or may not be transferable, inheritable, and tradable. While generally used to allocate total allowable catch, quotas could be used also to allocate fishing effort or biomass. Seas At Risk. 2009. Moving Towards Low Impact Fisheries In Europe Policy Hurdles & Actions.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Apex Fish Predators; Artisanal Fishing; Biological Harvest; Bivalves; Boat Movement; Boating Activities; Commercial Fisheries; Commercial Fishing Boats; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Food & Raw Materials; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertivorous Fish; Large Herbivorous Fish; Live Collection; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Products; Molluscs; Octopus & Squid; Piscivorous Fish; Planktivorous Fish; Provisioning Services; Recreational Fishing; Snails & Conch; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Resource Use Management: Develop Regulations for Sponge Fisheries Sponges play a vital role on reefs, providing structure, food and filtration. Depending on the method of removal, this process can be very destructive to other reef fauna and habitat. Research is needed to compare impacts of different sponge fishing methods in different areas. NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Biochemical & Genetic Resources; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boring Sponges; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Culture; Cyanobacteria; Educational & Research Opportunities; Encrusting Sponges; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Marine Products; Microorganisms; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics Sources; Physical Damage; Resource Use Management; Scientific Research; Sponges; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage; Tube, Barrel, & Finger Sponges
Resource Use Management: Develop Live Collection Regulations Live collection is often more destructive than capture of food fishes because of the destructive methods used to remove live fish and invertebrates from the reef habitat. These methods include use of cyanide and explosives. Current methods should be assessed and alternatives should be developed or collection prohibited. World Resource Institute International Marinelife Alliance, editor. 1997. Sullied Seas. WRI, Washington D.C.

Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Biochemical & Genetic Resources; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Commercial Fisheries; Contact Uses; Educational & Research Opportunities; Finfish Harvest; Fisheries & Hunting Policies; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Live Collection; Marine Products; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics Sources; Physical Damage; Resource Use Management; Scientific Research; Sponges; Toxics; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage; Wholesale & Retail Trade

Laws

Legal Citation Purpose of Law Management Organization Database Topics
Amendment to the U.S. Caribbean Fishery Management Plans, Code of Federal Regulations § 600 and 622. NMFS issues this final rule to implement a comprehensive amendment prepared by the Caribbean Fishery Management Council (Council) to amend its Reef Fish, Spiny Lobster, Queen Conch, and Coral Fishery Management Plans (FMPs). The comprehensive amendment is designed to ensure the FMPs are fully compliant with the provisions of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (Magnuson-Stevens Act). This final rule redefines the fishery management units for the FMPs; establishes seasonal closures; imposes gear restrictions and requirements; revises requirements for marking pots and traps; and prohibits the filleting of fish at sea. In addition, the comprehensive amendment establishes biological reference points and stock status criteria; establishes rebuilding schedules and strategies to end overfishing and rebuild overfished stocks; provides for standardized collection of bycatch data; minimizes bycatch and bycatch mortality to the extent practicable; designates essential fish habitat (EFH) and EFH habitat areas of particular concern (HAPCs); and minimizes adverse impacts on such habitat to the extent practicable. The intended effect of this final rule is to achieve optimum yield in the fisheries and provide social and economic benefits associated with maintaining healthy stocks.

Application to Coral Reefs:Protects coral reefs in the USVI and Puerto Rico from overfishing reef resources, specifically reef fish, lobster, and queen conch taking. It establishs seasonal closures, restrictions on the gear used, lists areas of specific biological reference points, and has a schedule and strategy for restocking fishery resources.

Legislative Actions:

Comments: 		National Marine Fisheries Service

Jurisdiction:
US Virgin Islands; Puerto Rico 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Commercial Fisheries; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates; Recreational Fishing; Reef Inhabitants
Chapter 2: Protection of indigenous, endangered and threatened fish, wildlife and plants, 12 Virgin Islands Code. Regulates activities, including scientific research, that could affect indigenous species and species considered at risk (threatened) or endangered, establishes species of special concern and habitats that should be protected, requires permits for trimming mangroves

Application to Coral Reefs:It is illegal to take or posses "live rock" which is defined as dead or live coral. It is illegaal to cut all three species of mangrove trees. Forbidding the takeing of coral directly protects coral species. Not cutting mangraoves will aid in sediment control and the removal of nutrients that could enter coral reef areas. The Commission can designate habitats for listed threatened or endangered species.

Legislative Actions:It is illegal to take or posses "live rock" which is defined as dead or live coral. It is illegaal to cut all three species of mangrove trees. Forbidding the takeing of coral directly protects coral species. Not cutting mangraoves will aid in sediment control and the removal of nutrients that could enter coral reef areas. The Commission can designate habitats for listed threatened or endangered species.

Comments: 		US Virgin Islands, Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Protection

Jurisdiction:
US Virgin Islands 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Coral; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Mangroves; Ornamental Jewelry & Art; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Endangered and Threatened Species; Critical Habitat for Threatened Elkhorn and Staghorn Corals, 73 Federal Register § 6895 (2008). To make it unlawful, to import or export the species into or from the US, to take the species within the US or territorial seas of the US, to take the species upon the high seas, to possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship by any means whatsoever the species taken in violation, to deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship in interstate or foreign commerce, by any means whatsoever and in the course of a commercial activity the species, to sell or offer for sale in interstate or foreign commerce the species, to violate any regulation pertaining to the species.

Application to Coral Reefs:The deignation of Acropa palmeta and Acropa cervicornis as threathened species will allow the species advantages in recovery. The designation protects the reef habitat because the species must have the reef to reproduce and grow.

Legislative Actions:Section 11 of the ESA provides civil and criminal penalties for a violation of the ESA.

Comments: 		NOAA

Jurisdiction:
US Coral Reefs; US Territorial Waters; US Virgin Islands; Puerto Rico 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Collaboration & Partnering; Environmental Education & Outreach; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Recreational Opportunities; Skeletal Coral; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Regulations, Federal Register § Volume 66, Number 11 (2001). NOAA established the Tortugas Ecological Reserve (a no-take zone) in the Tortugas region (Tortugas or region) of the Florida Keys to protect significant coral resources and to protect an area that serves as a source of biodiversity for the Sanctuary as well as for the southwest shelf of Florida. Establishment of the Reserve included expansion of the Sanctuary boundary to ensure that the Reserve protects sensitive coral habitats lying outside the existing boundary of the Sanctuary.

Application to Coral Reefs:The Regulation protects significant coral resources and many marine species by providing a no-take zone.

Legislative Actions:The regulation increased the no-take zones to 24 areas. Fishing is prohibited in Tortugas north for areas that are within State waters. Diving is prohibited in Tortugas south.

Comments: 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Jurisdiction:
US State Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Biological Harvest; Bivalves; Boating Activities; Commercial Fisheries; Coral; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Environmental Education & Outreach; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Protected Areas; Molluscs; Octopus & Squid; Recreational Fishing; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Sea Urchins; Seastars; Snails & Conch; Sponges; Stony Coral; Tourism & Recreation; Trawling & Fishing Gear Damage
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Regulations; Final Rule, Code of Federal Regulations § Parts 922, 929, 937 (1997). NOAA developed the comprehensive Final Management Plan for the FKNMS and issued the Plan on January 30, 1997. Congress and the Governer of Florida were provided a 45-day period to provide certification of unacceptable regulations that needed amendments. NOAA incorporated the certified changes provided and issued the final regulations and management plan for the Sanctuary that went into effect with the publication of the final rule, including waters within the State of Florida in the Sanctuary.

Application to Coral Reefs:The Sanctuary sets aside the coral reef system that is the third largest barrier coral reef in the world. Included in the FKNMS are the Key Largo Marine Sanctuary containing 103 square nautical miles of coral reefs and Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary containing 5.32 square nautical miles of coral reefs. The Act protects the reefs from anchoring directly into the coral formation and taking coral dead or alive. The Act protects mangrove islands and submerged aquatic vegetation, both potential buffers for the reef system against eutrophication and sediment deposition. The Act prohibits oil and hydrocarbon exploration, mining or altering the seabed, restricts large shipping traffic, and restricts the discharge of pollutants, further protecting coral, mangroves, and submerged aquatic vegetation.

Legislative Actions:The Act requires the preparation of a comprehensive management plan and implementing regulations to protect Sanctuary resources.

Comments:The final rule codifies the Act and further defines boundaries of the Sanctuary as well as providing a list of species protected in the Sanctuary. 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric and Administration

Jurisdiction:
US Coral Reefs; US Territorial Waters; State Coastal Waters; US State Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Ballast Discharge; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Regulations; Collaboration & Partnering; Commercial Fishing Boats; Cruise Ships; Cultural Protections; Designate Protected Species; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates; Large Ships; Live Collection; Mangroves; Marine Debris; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Oil & Gas Tankers; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Reef Inhabitants; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Sediment; Shoreline Protection; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation Policies; Waste Management Policies; Wetlands
Proclamation No. 7392, The Buck Island Reef National Park, 66 Federal Register 7335-7336 (2001). 18,000 acres in the US Virgin Islands

Application to Coral Reefs:The Proclamation expanded the original momument thus protecting additional coral reefs within the monument boundaries.

Legislative Actions:

Comments:Together, Proclamation 7399 and 7392 designated a total of 30,843 marine acres in the United States Virgin Isalnds as monuments. 		US Virgin Islands, Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Protection

Jurisdiction:
US Virgin Islands 		Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Commercial Fishing Boats; Cruise Ships; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Economic Markets & Policies; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Invertebrate Harvest; Mangroves; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies
Proclamation No. 7399, Establishment of Virgin Islands Coral Reef National monument, 66 Federal Register 7364 (2001). Designated 12,000 marine acres in the US Virgin Islands

Application to Coral Reefs:Monuments include coral reefs thereby providing the coral reefs within the monument bondaries the same protection as the designated monument areas.

Legislative Actions:

Comments:Together, Proclamation 7399 and 7392 designated a total of 30,843 marine acres in the United States Virgin Isalnds as monuments. 		US Virgin Islands, Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Protection

Jurisdiction:
US Virgin Islands 		Building & Home Construction; Commercial Fishing Boats; Designate Protected Species; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Invertebrate Harvest; Mangroves; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Road Construction & Maintenance; Seagrasses; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation Policies
The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and Protection Act, Public Law 101-605 (H.R. 5909 United States Code (1990). To protect the resources of the area delineated in section 5(b) of the Act, to educate and interpret for the public regarding the Florida Keys marine environment, and to manage such human uses of the Sanctuary consistent with the Act. Nothing in the Act is intended to restrict activities that do not cause adverse effects to the resources or property of the Sanctuary or that do not pose harm to the users of the Sanctuary.

Application to Coral Reefs:The Sanctuary sets aside the coral reef system that is the thrid largest coral reef barrier in the world. Included in the FKNMS are Key Largo Marine Sanctuary containing 103 square nautical miles of coral reefs and Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary containing 5.32 squared nautical miles of coral reefs.The Act protects the reefs from anchoring directly into the coral formation and taking coral dead or alive in the Sanctuary. From Miami to the Marquesas Keys there are over 6000 patch reefs. The Act also protects mangrove islands and submerged aquatic vegetation, both potential buffers for the reef system against eutrophication and sediment deposition. The Act prohibits oil and hydrocarbon exploration, mining or altering the seabed, restricts large shipping traffic, and restricts the discharge of pollutants, futher protecting mangroves, and submerged aquatic vegetation.

Legislative Actions:The Act required the preparation of a comprehensive mangement plan and implementing regulations to protect Sanctuary resources.

Comments:Large vessel groundings on coral reefs in the Florida Keys was a major driver for the designation of the Sanctuary. In 1989, there were three groundings of large commercial vessels on the coral reef tract within an eighteen day period. 		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration as lead agency and Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission, and Monroe County as Co-Trustees

Jurisdiction:
US Coral Reefs; US Federal Waters; US State Waters; Designated Marine Areas 		Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Ballast Discharge; Boating Regulations; Complex Habitat & Resources; Coral; Economic Markets & Policies; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Large Ships; Marine Debris; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Opportunities; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Reef Life; Shoreline Protection; Substrate; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Water Transportation

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