ReefLink Database

Economic Markets & Policies
Economic markets and policies can influence financing and insurance, as well as drive consumer demand for certain types of goods and services. Markets, such as carbon credit markets, may be established to mitigate pollutant discharge or development.
CMap
CMap Description
A change in the provision of ecosystem services, or a desire to improve provision of ecosystem services, may elicit responses to manage the distribution and functioning of socio-economic sectors that provide infrastructure. Infrastructure sectors, including transportation, utilities, construction, and manufacturing, create pressures on the reef ecosystem primarily through pollutant discharges and landscape changes, including devegetation, impervious surfaces, and soil disturbance that can effect rates of pollutant runoff. In coastal areas, development may require shoreline armoring or dredging activities, which can directly impact coastal vegetation and alter patterns of water flow. Infrastructure sectors benefit from reef ecosystem services, including shoreline protection, the availability of seafood, and recreational opportunities that drive coastal development and the need for infrastructure.Citations
Citation | Year | Study Location | Study Type | Database Topics |
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McCloskey, J. T., R. J. Lilieholm, and C. Cronan. 2011. Using Bayesian belief networks to identify potential compatibilities and conflicts between development and landscape conservation. Landscape and Urban Planning 101:190-203. | 2011 | Model; GIS & Maps | Economic Markets & Policies; Landscape Conservation & Restoration; Surface & Groundwater Flow | |
Sarkis, S., P. J. H. VanBeukering, and E. McKenzie, editors. 2010. TOTAL ECONOMIC VALUE OF BERMUDA�S CORAL REEFS: Valuation of Ecosystem Services. Department of Conservation Services, Bermuda. | 2010 | Bermuda | Banks, Credit, & Securities; Coastal Development; Collaboration & Partnering; Economic Markets & Policies; Monetary Valuation; Tourism & Recreation; Valuation | |
TEEB. 2010. in P. Kumar, editor. The economics of ecosystems and biodiversity: ecological and economic foundations. Earthscan, United Kingdom. | 2010 | Index or Indicator | Economic Markets & Policies; Monetary Valuation; Valuation | |
van Beukering, P. J. H., S. Sarkis, E. McKenzie, S. Hess, L. Brander, M. Roelfsema, L. Looijenstijn-van der Putten, and T. Bervoets. 2010. Total Economic Value of Bermuda�s Coral Reefs Valuation of Ecosystem Services. | 2010 | Global; South & Central America; Bermuda; Caribbean | Banks, Credit, & Securities; Climate; Coastal Development; Collaboration & Partnering; Economic Markets & Policies; Fish; Monetary Valuation; Surface & Groundwater Flow; Tourism & Recreation; Valuation | |
2009. Special issue featuring: ocean acidification - from ecological impacts to policy opportunities. Current 25:1-45. | 2009 | Global | Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish Harvest; Fishing Sector; Ocean Acidity; Scientific Research | |
Russell, B. D., J. A. I. Thompson, L. J. Falkenberg, and S. D. Connell. 2009. Synergistic effects of climate change and local stressors: CO2 and nutrient-driven change in subtidal rocky habitats. Global Change Biology 15:2153-2162. | 2009 | Global | Model | Algae; Climate; CO2; Coralline Algae; Economic Markets & Policies; Nutrients; Ocean Acidity |
Smith, M. D., J. N. Sanchirico, and J. E. Wilen. 2009. The economics of spatial-dynamic processes: Applications to renewable resources. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 57:104-121. | 2009 | South & Central America; Mexico | Model | Economic Markets & Policies; Fish; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas |
Steneck, R. S. 2009. Marine Conservation: Moving Beyond Malthus. Current Biology 19. | 2009 | Economic Markets & Policies; Finfish Harvest | ||
Agar, J. J., J. R. Waters, M. Valdes-Pizzini, M. Shivlani, T. Murray, J. E. Kirkley, and D. Suman. 2008. U.S. caribbean fish trap fishery socioeconomic study. Bulletin of Marine Science 82:315-331. | 2008 | South & Central America; US Virgin Islands; Puerto Rico; Caribbean | Economic Markets & Policies; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing Sector; Housing | |
deJongh Jr., J. P., editor. 2008. United States Virgin Islands comprehensive economic development strategy. USVI Bureau of Economic Research, Unites States Virgin Islands. | 2008 | US Virgin Islands | Collaboration & Partnering; Economic Markets & Policies; Housing | |
Gelcich, S., N. Godoy, L. Prado, and J. C. Castilla. 2008. Add-on conservation benefits of marine territorial user rights fishery policies in central Chile. Ecological Applications 18:273-281. | 2008 | Oman | Decision Support Frameworks & Tools | Algae; Complex Habitat & Resources; Economic Markets & Policies; Fish; Fishing Sector; Invertebrates; Marine Protected Areas |
Shogren, J. F. and L. O. Taylor. 2008. On Behavioral-Environmental Economics. Review of Environmental Economics and Policy 2:26-44. | 2008 | Economic Markets & Policies | ||
Bell, F. W. 2003. Policy white paper on socioeconomic study of reefs in Southeast Florida. | 2003 | Florida | Artificial Habitat; Economic Markets & Policies | |
Ruitenbeek, J., M. Ridgley, S. Dollar, and R. Huber. 1999. Optimization of economic policies and investment projects using a fuzzy logic based cost-effectiveness model of coral reef quality: Empirical results for Montego Bay, Jamaica. Coral Reefs 18:381-392. | 1999 | Jamaica | Model | Economic Markets & Policies; Mitigation; Nutrients; Physical Damage; Sediment |
Daily, G. C., S. Alexander, P. R. Ehrlich, L. Goulder, J. Lubchenco, P. A. Matson, H. A. Mooney, S. Postel, S. H. Schneider, D.Tilman, and G. M. Woodwell. 1997. Ecosystem services: benefits supplied to human societies by natural ecosystems. Issues in Ecology 1:1-18. | 1997 | Global | Field Study & Monitoring | Agriculture; Climate; Economic Markets & Policies; Forestry; Microorganisms; Nutrients; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics Sources; Special Use Permitting |
Folke, C., C. S. Holling, and Charles Perrings. 1996. Biological diversity, ecosystems, and the human scale. Ecological Applications 6:1018-1024. | 1996 | Cultural Policies; Cultural Protections; Economic Markets & Policies | ||
Rhodes, MI LT. 1995. Coastal zone management in the Eastern Caribbean: current concerns, components, policies and programs. Pages 195-196 in Coastal Zone: Proceedings of the Symposium on Coastal and Ocean Management. | 1995 | South & Central America; Caribbean | Review | Economic Markets & Policies; Fishing Sector; Tourism & Recreation |
Gable, F. J., D. G. Aubrey, and J. H. Gentile. 1991. Global environmental change issues in the Western Indian Ocean region. Geoforum 22:401-419. | 1991 | Global; Indian Ocean; India | Model | Climate; CO2; Economic Markets & Policies; Landuse Management; Mangroves; Mitigation; Permitting & Zoning; Storms & Hurricanes; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Water Depth & Sea Level; Wetlands |
Management Options
Management Option | Description | Sources | Database Topics |
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Agriculture & Aquaculture: Phase Out Unwanted Subsidies | Subsidies are often offered to promote certain types of growth and development. At a later time, with changing priorities, it may be determined that these types of growth and development are no longer optimal. For example, sun grown coffee, was subsidized in Guancia Bay, PR, as it was expected to have higher future market demand. However, it requires clearing large tracts of land on steep, extremely erodible clay soils. This leads to high volumes of erosion because there is no vegetation to anchor the soil in place. Now these subsidies are promoting sun grown coffee even though shade grown is better for the land and reefs because it reduces erosion, extreme runoff, and adds vegetation to the land. | Center for Watershed Protection. 2008. Guanica Bay watershed management plan. |
Agriculture; Agriculture, Aquaculture, & Forestry Policies; Banks, Credit, & Securities; City Planning; Corporate Responses; Decision Support; Economic Markets & Policies; Finance & Insurance; Food & Energy Policies; Food & Raw Materials; Funding & Incentives; Infrastructural Policies; Infrastructure; Landuse Management; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Security; Security & Public Administration Policies |
Conducting Socioeconomic Research: Support science of socioeconomic analysis of marine protected areas | Little is known about applied socioeconomic analysis to marine protected areas. Funding support will be provided for scientists to meet and share information on this subject. | NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL. |
Contact Uses; Economic Markets & Policies; Funding & Incentives; Infrastructural Policies; Infrastructure; Marine Protected Areas; Pressures; Public Administration; Resource Use Management; Responses; Sectors Filling Human Needs; Security; Security & Public Administration Policies; Socio-Economic Drivers |
Corporate Response: Standardized Environmental Certifications and Labels | Product labeling initiatives are based on the premise that product information represented by or contained on the label is otherwise not readily available (or apparent) and is of value in consumer purchase decisions. For example, warning labels highlight product safety and toxic exposure hazards and advise consumers on ways to minimize risks. Likewise, a number of environmental certification programs (ECPs) identify products' environmental burdens and/or set standards for products' environmental attributes. Properly designed environmental labeling efforts can change consumer and manufacturer attitudes and behaviors, thus reducing environmental burdens. The specific metrics used to measure environmental label effectiveness include: 1) consumer awareness of labels, 2) consumer acceptance of labels (credibility and understanding), 3) changes in consumer behavior, 4) changes in manufacturer behavior, and 5) improvement of end goals, such as environmental quality. | Malcohn, E., Bentham Paulos, Andrew Stoeckle, Herbert Han-Pu Wang, and Julie Lynch. Determinants of Effectiveness for Environmental Certification and Labeling Programs. EPA-742-R-94-001, US EPA, Washington, DC. |
Agriculture; Agriculture, Aquaculture, & Forestry Policies; Aquaculture; Banks, Credit, & Securities; Climate; CO2; Collaboration & Partnering; Commercial Fisheries; Corporate Responses; Economic Markets & Policies; Environmental Education & Outreach; Fishing Sector; Food & Energy Policies; Food, Beverage, & Tobacco Products; Forestry; Health; Manufacturing & Trade; Manufacturing & Trade Policies; Marine Birds; Medical Care; Medical Centers; Metals, Electronics, & Machinery Products; Resource Use Management; Toxics; Transportation; Utilities; Whales & Dolphins; Wholesale & Retail Trade; Wood, Plastics, & Chemical Products |
Corporate Response: Invest & Co-finance Projects | Investing and co-financing projects that aim to conserve or restore habitats can be an effective means to preserving reef habitats as well as establishing positive working relationships between organizations. Investing in private sector projects will promote desired businesses and business practices, reducing barriers to entry and competitiveness as compared to traditional businesses and business practices to counterbalance advantages from undesired externalities. | World Bank Group. 2008. Biodiversity, Climate Change, and Adaptation. Nature based solutions from the world bank portfolio. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Washington, DC. |
Aquarium Stock; Banks, Credit, & Securities; Biochemical & Genetic Resources; Biomedical Research Policies; Collaboration & Partnering; Corporate Responses; Economic Markets & Policies; Finance & Insurance; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Food & Raw Materials; Funding & Donations; Funding & Incentives; Manufacturing & Trade; Manufacturing & Trade Policies; Marine Products; Ornamental Jewelry & Art; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics Sources; Provisioning Services; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation |
Economic Markets & Policy: Regulate International Trade of Reef Species | Many coral reef species are harvested internationally for a variety of markets including the aquarium trade, food, curios, jewelry and pharmaceuticals. The US is the largest importer for many of these markets. The US strictly limits extraction of stony coral and many reef species in its waters; but as a major importer and consumer of coral reef species, more actions can be taken to decrease the demand on international imports. Setting and enforcing regulations on what can be imported (such as Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species CITES) is one approach that has been taken. More information is needed, leaving room to collect trade data and assess the impacts of extraction techniques to find sustainable methods. Demand for species collected this way will be increased with greater transparency to consumers, which can be accomplished through certifications for environmentally cognoscente collectors and those using alternatives like aquaculture and coral farming. Continued participation in Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) is also beneficial. | U.S. Coral Reef Task Force. 2000. International Trade in Coral and Coral Reef Species: The Role of the United States. Report of the Trade Subgroup of the International Working Group to the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force, Washington, D.C. World Resource Institute International Marinelife Alliance, editor. 1997. Sullied Seas. WRI, Washington D.C. U.S. Coral Reef Task Force. 2000. The National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs. Washington, D.C. |
Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Aquaculture; Aquarium & Pet Trade; Aquarium Stock; Biological Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Collaboration & Partnering; Coral; Corporate Responses; Cultural Policies; Designate Protected Species; Economic Markets & Policies; Environmental Education & Outreach; Invertebrate Harvest; Invertebrates; Live Collection; Manufacturing & Trade; Manufacturing & Trade Policies; Marine Products; Ornamental Jewelry & Art; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics; Pharmaceuticals & Cosmetics Sources; Political Pressure; Souvenir & Decorative Trade; Sponges; Stony Coral; Toxics; Wholesale & Retail Trade |
Energy Policy & Development: Oil and Gas Rig Construction Regulations | The Minerals Management Service (MMS) has several requirements for leasing and permits for construction of new drilling rigs and platforms. Placement is very important so as to not interfere with other uses or the environment. These permits also cover exploratory structures for research and test sites. | Minerals Management Service. 2006. Leasing Oil and Natural Gas Resources. U.S. Department of the Interior. |
Civil Engineering & Construction; Construction Codes & Projects; Discharge Limitations; Discharges; Economic Markets & Policies; Energy Policy & Development; Infrastructural Policies; Infrastructure; Manufacturing & Trade Policies; Natural Gas & Electric Power; Oil & Gas Industry; Oil & Gas Research & Exploration; Oil & Gas Rigs; Permitting & Zoning; Petroleum Spills; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Point Source Discharges; Provisioning Services; Toxics; Utilities; Utility Policies |
Energy Policy & Development: Develop Offshore Wind and Hydrokinetic Alternative Energies | Policies encouraging or authorizing construction of offshore facilities are evolving, and there are many sides to the issue of how to best manage them. Alternative energies are desirable and would reduce the dependence on fossil fuel resources. However, hydrokinetic technologies are just becoming viable, meaning long term impacts are still unknown. Facilitative policies reduce barriers for alternative energy development or increase barriers or costs for incumbent technologies. These include research and innovation policies, technology improvement subsidies, market based policies that internalize externalities, and regulatory changes that simplify the permitting process. | Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy. 2009. Report to Congress on the Potential Environmental Effects of Marine and Hydrokinetic Energy Technologies. Department of Energy. Portman, M.E. 2010. Marine Renewable Energy Policy: Some US and International Perspectices Compared. Oceanography 23:98-105. |
Artificial Habitat; Biological Addition; Construction Codes & Projects; Economic Markets & Policies; Energy Policy & Development; Funding & Incentives; Infrastructural Policies; Natural Gas & Electric Power; Oil & Gas Industry; Permitting & Zoning; Petroleum Spills; Physical Variables; Point Source Discharges; Provisioning Services; Seawater Flow; Utilities; Utility Line Construction & Maintenance; Utility Policies |
Energy Policy & Development: Develop Energy Efficiency Initiatives | Energy efficiency is one of the lowest cost strategies for reducing greenhouse gases. Energy efficiency is also one of the few options that actually reduce user costs as well, since using less energy should reduce energy bills. Energy efficiency can be promoted across the residential, commercial, and industrial sectors. In the US, the ENERGY STAR program has served as a trusted source of information to help consumers and organizations throughout the nation adopt energy-efficient products and practices. Other ways to incentivize energy improvements include subsidizing (e.g. tax exemption) or issuing lower interest loans for investments in energy use reduction technologies and infrastructure (e.g. more efficient heating/cooling systems). | Environmental Protection Agency. ENERGY STAR and Other Climate Protection Partnerships. 2009 Annual Report. US EPA. |
Atmospheric Emissions; City Planning; Climate Regulation; CO2; Coal Mining; Construction Codes & Projects; Corporate Responses; Discharges; Economic Markets & Policies; Energy Policy & Development; Food, Beverage, & Tobacco Products; Funding & Incentives; Greenhouse Gas Emissions; Housing; Improved Technology; Landuse Management; Manufacturing & Trade; Metals, Electronics, & Machinery Products; Oil & Gas Industry; Shelter; Utilities; Utility Policies; Wholesale & Retail Trade; Wood, Plastics, & Chemical Products |
Monitor & Research: Utilize Managed Areas for Socioeconomic Research | Data are needed to test hypotheses about the socioeconomic impact of marine zoning and user-group perceptions about changes in natural resources within the sanctuary area. User-group perception of changes in natural resources can be compared with quantitative ecological data to identify misconceptions and knowledge gaps. Providing funding opportunities for external scientists to conduct research in the managed area is another option. | NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL. |
Contact Uses; Cultural Services; Culture; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Economic Markets & Policies; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Food & Raw Materials; Infrastructural Policies; Landuse Management; Marine Protected Areas; Monetary Valuation; Non-Monetary Valuation; Permitting & Zoning; Provisioning Services; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Regulating Services; Resource Use Management; Special Use Permitting; Supporting Services; Valuation |
Monitor & Research: Monitor Sanctuary Use Patterns and Resource Value | This management option seeks to provide data and analysis of consumptive and non-consumptive use of all natural resources within sanctuary borders. Special emphasis is to be placed on artificial and natural reef resources used by residents and visitors. Wherever possible, market and non-market values of these resources should be elicited as well. | NOAA Marine Sanctuary Program. 2007. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary revised management plan. National Ocean Service, Key West, FL. |
Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Contact Uses; Coral; Cultural Services; Economic Markets & Policies; Ecosystem Monitoring & Restoration; Marine Protected Areas; Monetary Valuation; Non-Monetary Valuation; Provisioning Services; Reef Habitat; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Valuation |
Transportation Policy: Airline Carbon Policy | Civil aviation is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions, and this contribution has grown as the industry has grown. Some regions are implementing policies such as cap and trade that apply to the airline industry. | Bruce Duguid. 2009. Fasten Your Seat Belt: Airlines and cap-and-trade. CTC764, Carbon Trust, United Kingdom. |
Atmospheric Emissions; Carbon Storage & Cycling; Climate Regulation; CO2; Economic Markets & Policies; Energy Policy & Development; Greenhouse Gas Emissions; Land & Air Transportation; Political Pressure; Provisioning Services; Regulating Services; Supporting Services; Transportation; Transportation Policies |
Laws
Legal Citation | Purpose of Law | Management Organization | Database Topics |
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Clean Water Act of 1974, 33 United States Code § 1252. | To restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters Application to Coral Reefs:The Act can be used to establish water quality standards for the disharge of pollutants into surface waters. Section 101 (3) stated that it will be the national policy that the discharge of toxic pollutants in toxic amounts will be prohibited. The legislation employs a variety of regulatory and nonregulatory tools to reduce direct pollutant discharges into waterways, finance wastewater treatment facilities, and manage polluted runoff. The tools are employed to achieve the broad goal of restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters so they can support "the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and recreation in and on the water." Legislative Actions:During the late 1980's, the program shifted from program-by-program, source by source, pollutant-by-pollutant approach to more holistic water-shed strategies. Under the watershed approach equal emphasis is placed on protecting healthy waters and restoring impaired waters. Also during the 1980's, voluntary programs for nonpoint runoff and regulatory programs for wet weather point sources began to be addressed. Comments:The Federal Water Pollution Contrl Act Amendments of 1972, PL 92-500, replaced the previous language of the Act entirely, including the Water Quality Act of 1965, the Clean Water Restoration Act of 1965, and the Water Quality Improvement Act of 1970, all of which had been amendments of the Water Pollution Control Act first passed in 1956. The 1977 amendments, PL 95-217, further amended PL 92-500. |
US Environmental Protection Agency Jurisdiction: United States; US Territories |
Agriculture, Aquaculture, & Forestry Policies; Biocriteria; Collaboration & Partnering; Construction Codes & Projects; Corporate Responses; Drinking Water Supply; Economic Markets & Policies; Energy Policy & Development; Hydrologic Management; Improved Technology; Mangroves; Microorganisms; Non-point Source Controls; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Nutrients; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Point Source Discharges; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Sewage Treatment; Waste Management Policies; Wastewater Discharge |
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, 16 United States Code §§ 1451-1456. | Preserve, protect, develop, and where possible, to restore or enhance the resources of the Nation's coastal zone for this and succeeding generations. Application to Coral Reefs:Protection of coastal areas can have an indirect influence on coral reef preservation and conservation by the use of environmentally sound construction and development by limiting runoff of contaminants and sediment that could have an adverse effect on inshore coral reefs if present. Legislative Actions:In addition, the Act authorized a national system of estuarine sanctuaries and the establishment of national field laboratories with a 50/50 cost-sharing grants with coastal states. Comments: |
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/US Fish and Wildlife Service Jurisdiction: United States; State Coastal Waters |
City Planning; Coastal Development; Collaboration & Partnering; Construction Codes & Projects; Corporate Responses; Designated Uses; Economic Markets & Policies; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Funding & Incentives; Hydrologic Management; Landscape Changes; Landuse Management; Marine Debris; Marine Protected Areas; Non-point Source Controls; Nutrients; Permitting & Zoning; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Resource Use Management; Sediment; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation Policies; Waste Management Policies; Waterborne Discharges; Wetlands |
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as amended through 2004,. | A voluntary national program to encourage coastal states to develop and implement coastal zone management plans and requires that "any federal activity within or outside of the coastal zone that affects any land or water use or natural resource of the coastal zone" shall be "consistent to the maximum extent practicable with the enforceable policies" of a state's coastal zone management plan. The law includes an Enhancement Grants program for protecting, restoring, or enhancing existing coastal wetlands or creating new coastal wetlands. It also establishes the National Estuarine Research Reserve System, guidelines for estuarine research, and financial assistance for land acquisition. Application to Coral Reefs:Protection of coastal areas can have an indirect influence on coral reef preservation and conservation by the use of environmentally sound construction and development by limiting runoff of contaminants and sediment that could have an adverse effect on inshore coral reefs if present. Legislative Actions:The 1985 amendments (PL 99-272) established the National Estuarine Reserve Research System a State-Federal process for designating national reserves and guidelines for estuarine research.The 1990 amendments (PL 101-508) established new Enhancement Grants for eight specific areas, including protecting, restoring or enhancing existing coastal wetlands or creating new coastal wetlands and assessing the cumulative effects of coastal development on coastal wetlands and fishery resource. Also, the 1990 statute established a new Coastal Nonpoint Source Pollution Control Program. The 1998 and 2004 (PL 105-383 and PL 108-456) established a program for the prevention and control of harmful algal blooms and hypoxia, and included authorization for a representative of the Department of Interior to assess the economic and ecological impacts of algal blooms and hypoxia. Comments:If implemented, the programs for economic, ecological and control of harmful algal blooms and hypoxia would be useful for coral reef issues. |
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/US Fish and Wildlife Service Jurisdiction: United States |
Building & Home Construction; City Planning; Civil Engineering & Construction; Coastal Development; Construction Codes & Projects; Docks & Marinas; Economic Markets & Policies; Infrastructural Policies; Mangroves; Permitting & Zoning; Ports & Harbors; Seagrasses; Shoreline Armoring; Surface & Groundwater Flow |
Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956, as amended, 16 United States Code § 742. | Established a comprehensive national fish, shellfish, and wildlife resources policy with emphasis on commercial fishing industry but also with a direction to administer the Act with regard to the inherent right of every citizen and resident to fish for pleasure, enjoyment, and betterment and to maintain and increase public opportunities for recreational use of fish and wildlife. Application to Coral Reefs: Legislative Actions: Comments:The 1998 amendments promoted voluteer programs and community partnerships for the benefit of national wildlife refuges. |
US Fish and Wildlife Service Jurisdiction: United States |
Bivalves; Commercial Fisheries; Designate Protected Species; Economic Markets & Policies; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Funding & Donations; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Recreational Fishing; Resource Use Management; Snails & Conch; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies |
Magnuson-Stevens Fisheries Conservation and Management Act of 1976, as amended through 1996,. | Provided for conservation and management of commercial and recreational fisheries in the US Exclusive Economic Zone (3-200 nautical miles offshore). Application to Coral Reefs:The Act recognized, and stated, that one of the greatest long-term threats to viable commercial and recreational fisheries is the continued loss of marine, esturaine, and other aquatic habitats, and that habitat considerations should receive increased attention for the conservation and management of fishery resources. Legislative Actions:The amended Act through 1996 created eight regional Fishery Management Councils and reguired foreign vessels to apply for permits to fish in US waters. The Councils develop Management plans for every fishery within their geographic region regarding guidelines for quota, bycatch caps and gear restrictions.. Comments: |
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Marine Fisheries Service Jurisdiction: |
Biocriteria; Economic Markets & Policies; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Political Pressure; Resource Use Management; Responses |
Magnuson-Stevens Fisheries Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act as amended through January 2007, Statutes at Large §§ 94-265. | National program for the conservation and management of fishery resources of the US to prevent overfishing, to rebuild overfished stocks, to facilitate the long-term protection of essential fish habitat, and to realize the full potential of the Nation's fishery resources. Application to Coral Reefs:Promote the protection of essential fish habitat in the review of projects conducted under federal permits, licenses, or other authorities that effct or have the potential to affect such habitats. The amendments of 2006 specifically require the protection of deep sea coral habitats. Legislative Actions:Requires government observers on board a certain number of fishing vessels. The Act provides for criminal and civil penalties dependent on the sections of the Act under which violations occured. Criminal penalties may be imposed up to a maximum of $50,000 and not more than one year in prison. Civil penalties may be imposed including seizure, forfeiture, and condemnation of property. Comments: |
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Marine Fisheries Service Jurisdiction: United States |
Apex Fish Predators; Biological Monitoring & Restoration; Commercial Fisheries; Commercial Fishing Boats; Complex Habitat & Resources; Economic Markets & Policies; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Finfish Harvest; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Fishing Sector; Marine Protected Areas |
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 42 United States Code §§ 4321-4377. | Requires analysis, public comment, and reporting for environmental impacts of federal actions. It stipulates the factors to be considered in environmental impact statements, and requires that federal agencies employ an interdisciplinary approach in related decision-making and develop means to ensure unqualified environmental values are given appropriate consideration, along with economic and technical considerations. Application to Coral Reefs:Requires an Environmental Assessment(EA), and potentially an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) if the project review finds there will be a significant impact. The EIS must detail the environmental impacts of the proposed action, unavoidable adverse environmental impacts, and alternatives to the proposed action. The resulting studies could protect sensitive environmental ecosystems, including coral reefs. Legislative Actions:The Act potentially could protect coral reefs if the proposed federal project could have a significant impact on the reef. Comments:The Act is completely procedural; it does not include specific regulations. The Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) was created by the Act. CEQ is part of the Executive Office of the President and one of the CEQ directives is to ensure that federal programs comply with NEPA. The puprose of the EIS is to disclose to the public and resource managers the probable long- and short-term impacts of the proposed project as well as consideration of less environmentally damaging alternatives to the recommended course of action. |
Federal agencies Jurisdiction: United States |
Agriculture, Aquaculture, & Forestry Policies; Biocriteria; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Regulations; Construction Codes & Projects; Decision Support; Designated Uses; Economic Markets & Policies; Energy Policy & Development; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Landuse Management; Marine Debris; Microorganisms; Non-point Source Controls; Permitting & Zoning; Physical & Chemical Environment; Physical Variables; Point & Mobile Source Controls; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Reef Life; Remediation; Resource Use Management; Sectors Filling Human Needs; Security; Socio-Economic Drivers; Transportation Policies; Waste Management Policies; Wetlands |
National Park Service, Department of Interior,. | To conserve the scenery, natural and historic objects, and wildlife of the National Parks; and to provide for the enjoyment of those resources in a sustainable manner. Regulations provide for the proper use, management, government, and protection of persons, property, and natural and cultural resources within areas under the jurisdiction of the National Park Service. Application to Coral Reefs: Legislative Actions: Comments: |
National Park Service Jurisdiction: United States |
Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Boating Regulations; Construction Codes & Projects; Deforestation & Devegetation; Designated Uses; Economic Markets & Policies; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Landuse Management; Mangroves; Marine Debris; Marine Protected Areas; Permitting & Zoning; Political Pressure; Public Administration; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Transportation Policies |
Proclamation No. 7392, The Buck Island Reef National Park, 66 Federal Register 7335-7336 (2001). | 18,000 acres in the US Virgin Islands Application to Coral Reefs:The Proclamation expanded the original momument thus protecting additional coral reefs within the monument boundaries. Legislative Actions: Comments:Together, Proclamation 7399 and 7392 designated a total of 30,843 marine acres in the United States Virgin Isalnds as monuments. |
US Virgin Islands, Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Protection Jurisdiction: US Virgin Islands |
Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Biological Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Commercial Fishing Boats; Cruise Ships; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Economic Markets & Policies; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Invertebrate Harvest; Mangroves; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Small Boats; Tourism & Recreation; Tourism & Recreation Policies |
Revised Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Management Plan §§ Public Law 101-605 (HR 5909, Public Law (2007). | The document is a report on the results of NOAA's five year review of strategies and activities detailed in the 1996 Final Management Plan and Environmental Impact Statement for the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Application to Coral Reefs:The plan specifically addresses preserving and enhancing Sanctuary resources including four national wildlife refuges, six state parks, three state aquatic preserves, Key Largo Marine Sanctuary, Looe Key Marine Sanctuary and a total of 2,900 square nautical miles of coastal waters and numerous coral reefs. The sanctuary ecosystems are facing specific threats including direct human impacts such as vessel groundidngs, pollution and overfishing. Legislative Actions: Comments: |
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration with the Florida Department of Environmental Protection and the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission as Co-trustees Jurisdiction: US Federal Waters; Designated Marine Areas |
Anemones & Zooanthids; Apex Fish Predators; Ballast Discharge; Coastal Development; Commercial Fishing Boats; Complex Habitat & Resources; Coral; Cruise Ships; Dive, Snorkeling, & Swimming Tourism; Economic Markets & Policies; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Littering; Lobster, Crab, & Shrimp; Marine Debris; Natural Gas & Electric Power; Non-point Source Runoff; Nutrients; Ocean Acidity; Oil & Gas Research & Exploration; Oil & Gas Rigs; Recreational Opportunities; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Seastars; Sediment; Sponges; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Waste Management; Waste Management Policies; Waterborne Discharges |
Significant amendments to the National Marine Sanctuaries Act of 1972. Amendments of 1980 were PL 96-332, 1984 were PL98-498, 1988 were Title II of PL 100-627, 1992 were PL 102-587, 1996 were PL 104-283 and for 2000 were PL106-513,. | Title III of the Marine Protection, Reseach and Sanctuaries Act was amended to create the National Marine Sanctuaries Program. The amendments of 1980 mandated the terms of designation to include the geographic area included within the sanctuary and the characteristics of the area that give it conservation, recreational, ecological, or esthetic value, and the types of activities that would be subject to regulation to protect those characteristics. The 1984 amendments required a Resource Assessment Report documenting present and potential use of the area. 1998 amendments established a special use permit for commercial operations, added a section that a vessel or person causing damage to the resources of a sanctuary would be liable for both response and cleanup costs as well as damages for any sanctuary resource destroyed. Amendments of 1992 provided that Title III may be cited as 'The National Marine Sanctuaries Act." Also, federal agencies had to be consistent with the National Environmental Policy Act in commenting on proposed designations. Application to Coral Reefs:Strenghtened the protectinon of marine sanctuaries and their resources. Some specific purposes of the Act that add to coral reef protection include; to identify and designate national marine sanctuaries of the marine environment, to maintain the natural b Legislative Actions: Comments: |
National Oceanic Aatmospheric Administration Jurisdiction: Designated Marine Areas |
Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Ballast Discharge; Boating Activities; Collaboration & Partnering; Commercial Fisheries; Commercial Fishing Boats; Construction Codes & Projects; Coral; Cruise Ships; Deforestation & Devegetation; Economic Markets & Policies; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Environmental Monitoring, Mapping, & Scientific Research; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Large Ships; Mangroves; Nutrient & Contaminant Processing; Oil & Gas Tankers; Physical & Chemical Water Quality Criteria; Recreational Fishing; Recreational Opportunities; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Reef Life; Resource Use Management; Seagrasses; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Wetland & Reef Restoration |
The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and Protection Act, Public Law 101-605 (H.R. 5909 United States Code (1990). | To protect the resources of the area delineated in section 5(b) of the Act, to educate and interpret for the public regarding the Florida Keys marine environment, and to manage such human uses of the Sanctuary consistent with the Act. Nothing in the Act is intended to restrict activities that do not cause adverse effects to the resources or property of the Sanctuary or that do not pose harm to the users of the Sanctuary. Application to Coral Reefs:The Sanctuary sets aside the coral reef system that is the thrid largest coral reef barrier in the world. Included in the FKNMS are Key Largo Marine Sanctuary containing 103 square nautical miles of coral reefs and Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary containing 5.32 squared nautical miles of coral reefs.The Act protects the reefs from anchoring directly into the coral formation and taking coral dead or alive in the Sanctuary. From Miami to the Marquesas Keys there are over 6000 patch reefs. The Act also protects mangrove islands and submerged aquatic vegetation, both potential buffers for the reef system against eutrophication and sediment deposition. The Act prohibits oil and hydrocarbon exploration, mining or altering the seabed, restricts large shipping traffic, and restricts the discharge of pollutants, futher protecting mangroves, and submerged aquatic vegetation. Legislative Actions:The Act required the preparation of a comprehensive mangement plan and implementing regulations to protect Sanctuary resources. Comments:Large vessel groundings on coral reefs in the Florida Keys was a major driver for the designation of the Sanctuary. In 1989, there were three groundings of large commercial vessels on the coral reef tract within an eighteen day period. |
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration as lead agency and Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission, and Monroe County as Co-Trustees Jurisdiction: US Coral Reefs; US Federal Waters; US State Waters; Designated Marine Areas |
Anchoring & Vessel Grounding; Ballast Discharge; Boating Regulations; Complex Habitat & Resources; Coral; Economic Markets & Policies; Educational & Research Opportunities; Environmental Education & Outreach; Existence Value & Sense of Place; Finfish Harvest; Fish; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Invertebrate Harvest; Large Ships; Marine Debris; Marine Protected Areas; Recreational Opportunities; Reef Habitat; Reef Inhabitants; Reef Life; Shoreline Protection; Substrate; Tourism & Recreation Policies; Water Transportation |
The Sustainable Fisheries Act, 23 §§ 104-297 (1996). | To amend the Magnuson Fisheries Conservation and Management Act to authorize appropriations, to provide for sustainable fisheries, and for other purposes. Application to Coral Reefs:The law recogonizes that direct and indirect habitat losses have resulted in a diminshed capacity to support existing fish levels. Habitat considerations should receive increased attention for conservation and management of fishery resources in the United States. Therefore, the Act encourages, though not indirectly, the protection of coral reefs. Legislative Actions: Comments: |
National Marine Fisheries Service Jurisdiction: US Federal Waters |
Accidental & Illegal Harvest; Apex Fish Predators; Commercial Fisheries; Economic Markets & Policies; Finfish & Shellfish Stock; Fishing & Harvesting Management; Mangroves; Seagrasses |
Water Resources Planning Act of 1965, as amended through 2000, 42 United States Code § 1692. | Established the Water Resources Council to be comprised of Cabinet representatives, including the Secretary of the Interior. The Council reviews river basin plans with respect to agricultural, urban, energy, industrial, recreational, and fish and wildlife needs. The Act also established a grant program to assist states in participating in the development of comprehensive water and land use plans. Application to Coral Reefs: Legislative Actions: Comments: |
US Fish and Wildlife Service Jurisdiction: United States |
Agriculture; Designated Uses; Economic Markets & Policies; Natural Gas & Electric Power; Reef Life; Resource Use Management; Tourism & Recreation |